ME5402

METAL CUTTING AND MACHINE TOOLS

 UNIT-I
THEORY OF METAL CUTTING
Production System - The Big Picture

Raw
materials Manufacturi Manufacturi Finished
ng Process ng Process product

Manufacturing System

People, Money, Equipment, Materials and Supplies, Markets, Management

4
 Material Removal Processes
It is shaping operations, the common feature of which is
removal of material from a starting work part so the
remaining part has the desired geometry.
 Machining – material removal by a sharp cutting tool,
e.g., turning, milling, drilling.
 Abrasive processes – material removal by hard,
abrasive particles, e.g., grinding.(Surface Finishing)

4
Why Machining is Important
• Variety of work materials can be machined
– Most frequently used to cut metals
• Variety of part shapes and special geometric
features possible, such as:
– Screw threads
– Accurate round holes
– Very straight edges and surfaces
• Good dimensional accuracy and surface finish

5
Disadvantages with Machining
• Wasteful of material
– Chips generated in machining are wasted material, at least
in the unit operation
• Time consuming
– A machining operation generally takes more time to shape
a given part than alternative shaping processes, such as
casting, powder metallurgy, or forming

6
Examples of Cutting Processes

8
Machining parameter
Machining Parameters
• Cutting speed is the primary cutting motion, which
relative the velocity of the cutting tool relative to the
work pieces. unit is (m/min) or (m/s)
• Feed rate is the distance the tool travel per unit
revolution of the work piece (mm/rev) or mm/min,
mm/rev
• DOC is distance of the tool is plunged into surface. It
is difference b/w initial & final diameter
Diagram Representation of Material
Removal Operations

10
General characteristics of a metal cutting tool
 Chip Formation
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work
material to form a chip.
As chip is removed, new surface is exposed.

Figure 21.2 (a) A cross‑sectional view of the machining process, (b)

tool with negative rake angle; compare with positive rake angle in (a).
Chip Formation
Mechanism of Chip formation
The cutting tool removes the metal from the workpiece in the form of
‘‘chips’’. As the tool advances into the workpiece, the metal in front of
the tool is compressed and when the compression limit of the metal has
been exceeded, it is separated from the workpiece and flows plastically in
the form of chip. The plastic flow of the metal takes place in a localized
region called shear plane, which extends from the cutting edge obliquely
up to the uncut surface in front of the tool. The cutting tool causes
shearing action bearing the metal along the plane (Fig. 8.1). The region
between the lines LM and NP is called shear zone

16
Mechanism of Chip formation
The metal in front of the tool rake face gets immediately
compressed first elastically and then plastically. This zone is
traditionally called the shear zone, in view of the fact the
material in the final form would be removed by shear from the
parent metal.

The actual separation of the metal starts from the cutting tool tip
as yielding or fracture, depending upon the cutting conditions.
Then the deformed metal (called chip) flows over the tool (rake)
face. If the friction between the tool rake face and the underside
of the chip (deformed material) is considerable, then chip gets
further deformed, which is termed as secondary deformation.
The chip after sliding over the tool rake face would be lifted
away from the tool, and the resultant curvature of the chip is
termed as chip curl. 17
Mechanism of Chip formation
case strained layers of material would get displaced over other
layers along the slip-planes which coincide with the direction of
maximum shear stress. Piispanen presented an interesting
mechanism to account for the deformation process taking place
at the cutting edge. He considered the undeformed metal as a
stack of cards which would slide over one another as the wedge
shaped tools moves under these cards as shown in Fig. 2.4.

18
 Mechanism of Chip formation
The form of the chips is an important index of machining
because it directly or indirectly indicates :
 Nature and behaviour of the work material under
machining condition
 Specific energy requirement (amount of energy required
to remove unit volume of work material) in machining
work
 Nature and degree of interaction at the chip-tool
interfaces.

19
 Mechanism of Chip formation
The form of machined chips depend mainly upon :
 Work material
 Material and geometry of the cutting tool
 Levels of cutting velocity and feed and also to some extent on
depth of cut
 Machining environment or cutting fluid that affects
temperature and friction at the chip-tool and work-tool
interfaces.

Knowledge of basic mechanisms of chip formation helps to

understand the characteristics of chips and to attain
favourable chip forms.
20
 TYPES OF CHIP
• The chip formation in metal cutting could be
broadly categorized into three types:
(i) Discontinuous chip
(ii) Continuous chip, and
(iii) Continuous chip with BUE

21
 DISCONTINOUS CHIP
• When brittle materials like cast iron are cut, the
deformed material gets fractured very easily and thus
the chip produced is in the form of discontinuous
segments as shown in Fig. 2.5

22
 DISCONTINOUS CHIP
• Also they generally provide better surface finish.
However, in case of ductile materials they cause poor
surface finish and low tool life. Higher depths of cut
(large chip thick ness)
• low cutting speeds and small rake angles are likely to
produce dis continuous chips.

23
 CONTINOUS CHIP
• Continuous chips are normally produced when
machining steel or ductile metals at high cutting speeds.
The continuous chip, which is like a ribbon flows (Fig.
2.7) along the rake face. Continuous chip is possible
because of the ductility of metal (steel at high
temperature generated due to cutting) flows along the
shear plane instead of rupture.

24
 CONTINOUS CHIP
• Some ideal conditions that promote continuous chips in metal cutting
are: sharp cutting edge, small chip thickness (fine feed), large rake
angle, high cutting speed, ductile work materials and less friction
between chip tool interfaces through efficient lubrication.

• This is the most desirable form of chip since the surface finish obtained
is good and cutting is smooth. It also helps in achieving higher tool life
and lower power consumption. However, because of the large coils of
chips, the chip disposal is a problem. To help in this direction various
forms of chip breakers have been developed which are in the form of a
step or groove in the tool rake face. The chip breakers allow the chips to
be broken into small pieces so that they can be easily disposed of.

25
 CONTINOUS CHIP with BUE
• When the friction between tool and chip is high while machining
ductile materials, some particles of chip adhere to the tool rake face
near the tool tip. When such sizeable material piles up on the rake face,
it acts as a cutting edge in place of the actual cutting edge as shown in
Fig 2.8. This is termed as built up edge (BUE). By virtue of work
hardening, BUE is harder than the parent work material.
• The conditions that normally induce the formation of BUE are low
cutting speed, high feed and low rake angle

26
TYPES OF CHIPS
Types of cutting tools
• Single point: These tools have only one
cutting edge. e.g., turning tools, shaping,
planning and slotting tools and boring tools.
• Multipoint (more than two): These tools
have more than one cutting edges. e.g.,
milling cutters, broaching tools, hobs, gear
shaping cutters, drilling, reaming
Single Point Cutting Tool

30
 Nomenclature of single point cutting tool
Tool Elements and Tool Angles :
Tool elements. The definitions of various tool elements are :
(i) Shank. It is the main body of the tool at one end of which the cutting portion is
formed.
(ii) Flank. The surface (or surfaces) below and adjacent to the cutting edge is
called the flank of the tool.
(iii) Face. The surface on which the chip slides is called the face of the tool.
(iv) Heel. It is the intersection of the flank and base of the tool.
(v) Nose. It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersect.
(vi) Cutting edge. It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material
from the workpiece.

31
Nomenclature of single point cutting tool

32
 Nomenclature of single point cutting tool
Tool angles :
(i) Side cutting edge angle. It is angle between the side cutting edge and the
side of the tool shank.
— It is also known as ‘lead angle’.
— Its complementary angle is called ‘Approach angle’.
This angle prevents interference as the tool enters the work material. Its
satisfactory values vary from 15° to 30° for general machining.
(ii) End cutting edge angle. This is the angle between the end cutting edge
and a line normal to the tool shank. This angle provides a clearance or relief to
the trailing end of the cutting edge to prevent rubbing or drag between the
machined surface and the trailing part of the cutting edge. Only a small angle
is sufficient for the purpose.
An angle of 8° to 15° has been found satisfactory in most cases on side
cutting tools, like boring and turning tools. End cutting tools, like cut off and
necking tools often have no end cutting-edge angle.

33
 Nomenclature of single point cutting tool
(iii) Side relief angle. It is the angle between the portion of the side flank
immediately below the side cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of
the tool, and measured at right angle to the side flank.
(iv) End relief angle. It is the angle between the portion of the end flank
immediately below the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of
the tool, and measured at right angle to the end flank.
The side and relief angles are provided so that the flank of the tool clears the
workpiece surface and there is no rubbing action between the two.
— These angles range from 5° to 15° for general turning.
— Small relief angles are necessary to give strength to the cutting edge when
machining hard and strong materials.
— Tools with increased values of relief angles penetrate and cut the workpiece
material more efficiently and this reduces the cutting forces.
— Too large relief angles weaken the cutting edge and there is less mass to
absorb and conduct the heat away from the cutting edge.

34
 Nomenclature of single point cutting tool
(v) Back rake angle. It is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel to the
base of the tool and measured in a plane (perpendicular) through the side cutting edge.
— This angle is positive, if the side cutting edge slopes downwards from the point towards
the shank and is negative if the slope of the side cutting edge is reverse.
(vi) Side rake angle. It is the angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of the
tool and measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and the side cutting edge.
— This angle gives the slope of the face of the tool from the cutting edge.
The side rake is negative if the slope is towards the cutting edge and positive if the slope is
away from the cutting edge.
The ‘‘rake angle’’ specifies the ease with which a metal is cut.
— Higher the rake angle, better is the cutting and less are the cutting forces. There is a
maximum limit to the rake angle and this is generally of the order of 15° for high speed steel
tools cutting mild steel (increase in rake angle reduces the strength of the tool chip as well
as the heat dissipation).
— It is possible to have rake angle as zero or negative. These are generally used in case of
highly brittle tool materials such as carbides or diamonds for giving extra strength to the
tool tip.

35
Nomenclature of single point cutting tool

(vii) Clearance angle. This is the angle between the machined surface and
underside of the tool called the flank face.
The clearance angle is provided such that the tool will not rub the machined
surface thus spoiling the surface and increasing the cutting forces.
A very large clearance angle reduces the strength of the tool lip, and hence
normally an angle of the order of 5°–6° is used.
(viii) Nose angle. It is the angle between the side cutting edge and end
cutting edge.
Nose radius is provided to remove the fragile corner of the tool ; it
increases the tool life and improves surface finish. Too large a nose radius
will induce chatter.
36
Tool signature
• A tool having 7, 8, 6, 7, 5, 6, 0.1 as designation
(Signature) have the following angles and nose
radius.
• Back rack angle = 7
• Side rake angle = 8
• End relief angle = 6
• Side relief angle = 7
• End cutting edge angle = 5
• Side cutting edge angle = 6
• Nose radius = 0.1 mm
ORTHOGONAL AND OBLIQUE CUTTING

1. Orthogonal cutting : Refer to Fig. 8.6.

When the tool is pushed into the workpiece, a layer of material is removed from the
workpiece and it slides over the front face of the tool called rake face. When the cutting
edge of wedge is perpendicular to the cutting velocity, the process is called orthogonal
cutting. In this case, the material gets deformed under plane strain conditions ; the chip
slides directly up the tool face. Rarely in practice, however, is the cutting edge at right
angles to the direction of cutting (i.e., orthogonal cutting).

39
ORTHOGONAL AND OBLIQUE CUTTING

2. Oblique cutting : Refer to Fig 8.7.

In most practical metal-cutting processes, the cutting edge of the tool is
not perpendicular to the cutting velocity but set at angle with the normal
to the cutting velocity. Cutting in this case takes place in three-
dimensions (turning or milling) and represents the general case of
oblique cutting. In oblique cutting a lateral direction of chip movement is
obtained.

40
ORTHOGONAL AND OBLIQUE CUTTING

41
FORCE OF A SINGLE PONT TOOL

42
FORCE OF A SINGLE PONT TOOL

43
 FORCE OF A SINGLE PONT TOOL
• The forces are not changed significantly by a change in cutting speed.
• The greater the ‘feed’, of the tool, the larger the forces.
• The greater the ‘depth’ of the cut, the larger the forces.
• Tangential force increases with chip size.
Measurement of cutting forces :
Although an indirect method of measuring cutting forces acting on the tool is with the aid
of a ‘‘wattmeter’’, yet a more exact method is with the aid of a tool dynamometer.
The total force during metal cutting, in most metal cutting dynamometers, is determined
by measuring the deflections or strains in the elements supporting the cutting tool. The
design of the dynamometer should be such as to give strains or displacements large
enough to be measured accurately.
The commonly used tool dynamometer are :
1. Mechanical dial gauge type.
2. Strain gauge dynamometer.
A strain gauge dynamometer is more accurate than a mechanical dial gauge.
3. Pneumatic and hydraulic dynamometers.
4. Electrical dynamometers.
5. Piezoelectrical dynamometers.
44
Shear Zone, Shear Plane and Shear Angle

When cutting tool is introduced into the work material, plastic deformation takes
place in a narrow region in the vicinity of the cutting edge. This region is called
shear zone (see Fig. 8.10). The width of this zone is small and therefore chip
formation is often described as a process of successive shears of thin layers of the
work material along particular surfaces. At high speeds, this zone can be assumed
to be restricted to a plane called shear plane (see Fig. 8.11) inclined at an angle
(shear angles).

45
Shear Angle

46
Shear Angle

47
CHIP THICKNESS RATIO

48
CHIP THICKNESS RATIO

49
FORCE OF A SINGLE PONT TOOL

In an orthogonal cutting test with a tool of rake angle 10°,

the following observations were made:
Chip thickness ratio = 0.3
Horizontal component of the cutting force = 1290 N
Vertical component of the cutting force = 1650 N
Breath = 6mm - thickness = 0.10mm
From the Merchant's theory, calculate the various
components of the cutting forces, all angle, shear stress and
the coefficient of friction at the chip tool interface.

50
 Thermal Aspect
During metal cutting, the energy dissipated gets converted into heat.
Consequently, high temperatures are generated in the region of the tool cutting
edge, and these temperatures have a controlling influence on the rate of wear of
the cutting tool and on the friction between the chip and tool. When a material is
deformed elastically, the energy required for the operation is stored in the
material as strain energy, and no heat is generated. However, when the material
is deformed plastically, most of the energy used is converted into heat. In metal
cutting the material is subjected to extremely high strains and the elastic
deformation forms a very small proportion of the total deformation ; therefore it
may be assumed that all the energy is converted into heat. In fact, heat is
generated in three distinct regions (Fig) these are :

51
 Thermal Aspect
(i) The shear zone : Here the energy needed to shear the chip is the source of heat. In this
region about 80–85% of the heat is generated.
(ii) The chip-tool interface region. Here the energy needed to overcome friction is the
source of heat. Some plastic deformation also occurs in this region. About 15–20% heat
is generated in this region.
(iii) The tool-work interface region. Here energy needed to overcome frictional rubbing
between flank face of the tool and workpiece is the source of heat. In this region only
1–3% of heat is generated.

Measurement of Chip-Tool Interface Temperature

Follow are the various methods of measuring chip-tool interface temperature :
1. Tool work thermocouple.
2. Embedded thermocouples.
3. Infra-red photographic technique.
4. Temperature sensitive techniques.
5. Temper colours.
6. Indirect calorimetric technique.

52
Thermal Aspect
1. Tool work thermocouple :
In this technique, the hot end of the tool and workpiece and their cold ends act as
thermocouple and e.m.f. proportional to temperature difference is produced. The
workpiece is insulated from the chuck and tailstock centre. The end of
workpiece is connected to a copper wire which dipped in mercury cup enables
further connection serving as cold end. This point and a connection from tool
provide output for connection to a milli voltmeter.
2. Embedded thermocouples :
The thermocouples are embedded in fine holes eroded in H.S.S. tool from
bottom face up to a fixed distance from the rake face. This arrangement enables
measurement of temperature at several points along the rake face of tool.
3. Infra-red photographic technique :
This technique of temperature measurement is based on taking photographs of
the side face of tool-chip while cutting and comparing them with strips whose
temperatures are known.

53
 TOOL WEAR
• Wear can be defined as the loss of weight or mass that
accompanies the contact of sliding surfaces.
• The wear mechanism associated with gradual or progressive
wear include :
• (i) Abrasion wear.
• (ii) Adhesion wear.
• (iii) Diffusion wear.
 Tool wear mechanism
• Adhesion wear: This form of wear takes place when two surfaces
are brought into intimate contact under normal loads and form
welded junctions, which, when subjected to shearing loads, are
subsequently destroyed.
• Abrasion: Hard particles, microscopic variations on the bottom
surface of the chips rub against the tool surface and break away a
fraction of tool with them.
• Diffusion wear: At high temperatures, atoms from tool diffuse
across to the chip; the rate of diffusion increases exponentially with
temperature; this reduces the fracture strength of the crystals.
TOOL LIFE
• Tool life is defined as the time interval between two successive regrinds.
• Factors affecting tool life :
• Tool life depends upon the following factors :
• (i) Tool material.
• (ii) Hardness of the material.
• (iii) Type of material being cut.
• (iv) Type of the surface on the metal (Rough or smooth).
• (v) Profile of the cutting tool.
• (vi) Type of the machining operation being performed.
• (vii) Microstructure of the material.
• (viii) Finish required on the workpiece.
• (ix) Cutting speed. As the cutting speed is reduced, the tool life increases.
• (x) Feed and depth of cut. An increase in feed and depth of cut will shorten
tool life but not nearly as much as an increase in cutting speed.
• (xi) Cutting temperature. In general, higher temperatures cause shorter tool
life.
TOOL LIFE
TOOL LIFE EQUATION
• Tool life of a cutting tool may be calculated by using the
following relation :
• VTn = C This equation is known as Taylor’s tool equation.
• where, V = Cutting speed in m/min.,
• T = Tool life in min.,
• C = A constant (which is numerically equal to cutting speed that
gives the tool life of one min.), and
• n = Another constant (depending upon finish, workpiece
material and tool material)
• n= 0.1 for H.S.S. steel tools : 0.2 to 0.25 for carbide tools and
0.4 to 0.55 for ceramic tools.
TOOL LIFE EQUATION
• Calculate the cutting speed for a tool to have a tool life of 160
min. The same tool had a life of 9 min when cutting at 250
m/min. Take n = 0.22 in the Taylor’s tool life equation.

• During straight turning of a 24 mm diameter steel bar at 300

r.p.m. with an H.S.S. tool, a tool life of 9 min. was obtained.
When the same bar was turned at 250 r.p.m., the tool life
increased to 48.5 min. What will be the tool life at a speed of
280 r.p.m. ?
TOOL LIFE EQUATION
CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
• (i) Higher hardness than that of the work piece material being machined, so that it
can penetrate the work material.
• (ii) Hot hardness, which is the ability of the material to retain its hardness at elevated
temperatures, in view of the high temperatures existing in the cutting zone. This
requirement becomes more and more stringent with the increasing emphasis on
higher cutting speeds to bolster productivity.
• (iii) Wear resistance – The chip-tool and chip-work interfaces are exposed to such
severe conditions that adhesive and abrasion wear is very common. The cutting tool
material should therefore have high abrasion resistance to improve the effective life
of the tool.
• (iv) Toughness – Even though the tool is hard, it should have enough toughness to
withstand the impact loads at the beginning of the cut or to force fluctuations due to
imperfections in the work material. This requirement is more useful for interrupted
cutting, e.g. milling.
• (v) Low friction – The coefficient of friction between chip and tool should be low
which would allow for lower wear rates and better chip flow.
• (vi) Better thermal characteristics – Since a lot of heat is generated at the cutting
zone, it is necessary that the tool material should have higher thermal conductivity to
dissipate this heat in the shortest time, otherwise the tool temperature will become
too high thus reducing its life.
TYPES OF CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
1. High-speed steels
2. Cast-cobalt alloys
3. Carbides
4. Coated tools
5. Alumina-based ceramics
6. Cubic boron nitride
7. Silicon-nitride-based ceramics
8. Diamond
9. Whisker-reinforced materials and nanomaterials.
CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS
Comparison cutting tool material
 Cutting fluid

• Cutting fluid are used to carry away the heat

produced during machining. It reduce friction
between tool and work piece.
• Properties of cutting fluid
• It should have high specific heat and k
• High flash point
• Non corrosive to tool
• Low viscosity to permit free flow
• It should be transparent , economical use
Function of cutting fluid

• To reduce the Friction

• Disposal chip
• To cool the cutting tool and the workpiece.
• To lubricate the chip, tool, and workpiece.
• To help carry away the chips.
• To lubricate some of the moving parts of the
machine tool.
• To improve the surface finish.
• To prevent the formation of built-up-ridge.
• To protect the work against rusting.
Types of cutting fluid
• Water based cutting fluid
Added soft soap or mineral oil to water. 80%
water and 20% mineral oil
• Straight or heat oil based cutting fluid
Straight oil based cutting fluid means undiluted
or pure oil based fluid. oil with chemical such
as sulphur and chlorine.
 Types of cutting fluid
• 1. Oils (also called straight oils), including mineral, animal,
vegetable, compounded, and synthetic oils, typically are used for
low-speed operations where temperature rise is not significant.
• 2. Emulsions (also called soluble oils), a mixture of oil and water
and additives, generally are used for high-speed operations because
the temperature rise is significant. The presence of water makes
emulsions highly effective coolants. The presence of oil reduces or
eliminates the tendency of water to cause oxidation.
• 3. Semi synthetics are chemical emulsions containing little mineral
oil, diluted in water, and with additives that reduce the size of oil
particles, making them more effective.
• 4. Synthetics are chemicals with additives, diluted in water, and
containing no oil.
Other types of cutting fluid :

• Mineral oil
• Straight fatty oil
• Mixed or compound oil
• Sulphurised oil
• Chlorinated oil
Types of flushing systems:
• Flooding System
• Mist
• High Pressure system
• Through the cutting tool system
 Machinability

• Machinability is defined as the ease with which

material can be satisfactorily machined.

• The life of tool before tool failure or resharpen

• Quality of machined surface
• Power consumption per unit volume of material
removed.
 Factor affect machinability
• Work piece variable
• Tool material
• Machine variable
• Cutting condition
Machinability index
It is quantitative measure of machinability
I - vi/vs
Vi – cutting speed of metal investigated for 20min tool
life
Vs –standard steel for 20min tool life