ECOSYSTEM

ECOSYSTEM
•The concept of ecosystem was first put forth by A.G. Tansley (1935).
•Ecosystem is the major ecological unit. It has both structure and function
•Ecosystem is a group of biotic communities of Interacting with one
another and with their non living environment exchanging energy and
matter
•Ecosystem consist of the living community and non- living factors of the
environment
•It is therefore the totality of the system in which life proceed
•Ecosystem is equal to living community plus non-living factors of the
environment
•Ecosystem refers to the smallest unit of the biosphere that has all the
characteristics to sustain life. It can also be described as an assemblage of
populations grouped into communities and interacting with each other and their
local environment
•Ecosystem varies greatly with respect to size location, weather pattern and
types of animal and plant that live there
 Ecosystem: open or closed
terrestrial or aquatic

Terrestrial: Land based

like grassland, Forest
Aquatic : water based
like pond, lake, river, sea
 Characteristics of Ecosystem
• Ecosystem is a structural and functional unit of ecology
• Nature of ecosystems depends upon the species biodiversity of the
ecosystem
• More complex the ecosystem, more diverse is the species of plants
and animals in that particular ecosystem
• Function of an ecosystem depends upon energy flow and material
cycle through and within the system.
• The energy requirement by the ecosystem depends upon the
complexity of an ecosystem, If ecosystem is complex, less energy from
outside will be required to maintain it .
• As the ecosystem moves form less complex to more complex states,
the energy accumulation goes on increasing
• Bio-geographical realms: Eurasia—palearctic realm; South and
southeast Asia—Oriental realm; North America– Nearartic realm;
South America– Neotropical realm; Africa—ethopian realm; Australia—
Australian realm
• Biogeographic region: Himalayas; andaman and Nicobar Island
Common to all ecosystems is a set of
processes.
There are 2 important characteristics of ecosystem concept:

1. It can be applied at any scale example a drop of water

inhabited by protozoa or mosquito or a forest estate.
Ecosystem vary strictly with respect to size, location, weather
pattern and types. The boundary of an ecosystem is not
absolute because animals may wander from one region to
another; seeds are blown by wind from one place to another

2.There is reciprocity between living component of the

ecosystem. The environment affects the organism as much
as the organism affects the environment
 Structure of Ecosystem

Abiotic Biotic

Temperature, Sunshine,
Wind
Autotrophs Heterotrophs Decomposers
(green plants)

1 consumers 2consumers 3 consumers

(e.g. Goat) 1 carnivores 2 carnivores
(e.g. Dog) (eg Hyenna)
Components of the ecosystem
There are 2 basic elements in a given ecosystem
1. Living or biotic element
2. Non-living or abiotic element

Biotic component
Living parts of ecosystem can be sub-divided into
(a) Autotrophs: - are the green plants which are the primary
producers because they are able to convert the atmospheric
sunlight through photosynthesis to manufacture their own
food
b) Heterotrophs: - they cannot synthesize their own food
from sunlight and then depend on the primary producers
(green plants). They are thus consumers. There are 3 levels
of consumers:-
1. Primary consumers: - are the herbivores that feed
directly on the primary producers. E.g Sheep, Goat.
2. Secondary consumers: - feed on the primary consumers.
They are the carnivores e.g Dog, Cat.
3. Tertiary consumers:- are various carnivores that feeds
on other carnivores e.g Hyena,
4. Decomposers: - These break down the producers and
the consumers to micro part for reservation back into the
systems e.g Microorganisms
• Abiotic component
Comprises the non-living, in-animate parts called physical
environment.
The physical and chemical components of an
ecosystem constitute its abiotic structure.
It include
• Climate (Temperature, Humidity, Rainfall, Sunshine,
Wind and Evapotranspiration)
• Geographical factors
• Energy
• Nutrients
• Toxic substance
Physical factors
• Sunlight and shade
• Intensity of solar flux
• Duration of sun hours
• Latitude and altitude
• Annual rainfall
• Wind
• Water availability
• Water current
• Soil type
• Average temperature
• Maximum and minimum temperature
Chemical factors
• Carbon
• Nitrogen
• Phosphorus
• Potassium
• Hydrogen
• Oxygen
• Levels of toxic substances
• Salt causing salinity
• Sulphur
• Various organic substance present in the soil or water
largely influenced the functioning of the ecosystem
Functional Attributes

• Food chain
• Food web
• Energy flow
• Biogeochemical cycle
• Primary and secondary production
• Ecosystem development and regulation
 Food Chains

• The sequence of eating and being eaten is known as food chain

• The producers, consumers, and decomposers of each ecosystem
make up a food chain
• The producers and consumers are arranged in the ecosystem in a
definite manner and their interaction along with population size are
expressed together as trophic structure
• Each level is known as a trophic level at a given time
• The amount of living matter at each trophic level is known as standing
crop or standing biomass
• There are many food chains in an ecosystem
Food Chains
Food Chains: grazing
example-- Pond
Food Chains: Grazing
Example--land
Food Chains: Detritus
Example--Mangrove
In each transfer some energy is lost .

Therefore the shorter the food chain the greater the energy available to that
population.

Food chains are of two basic types:

1. THE GRAZING FOOD CHAIN:

This type of food chain starts from the green plant which goes to
grazing herbivores and on carnivores

Grass……….Grasshopper………Frog………..Snake…….Hawk

2. THE DETRITUS (ERODED) FOOD CHAIN :

It starts with dead organic matter which the detritivores and

decomposers consume. Partially decomposed organic matter and
even the decomposers are consumed by detritivores and their
predators. An example of the detritus food chain is seen in a
Mangrove estuary.
• A large quantity of leaf material falls in the form of litter into
water. The leaf fragments are eaten by saprotrophs.

• Saprotrophs are those organisms which feeds on dead

organic matter.

• These fallen leaves are colonized by small algae , which

are also consumed by the saprotrophs or detritivores
consisting of small crabs , mollusks, shrimps ,insects
larvae , nematodes and fishes.

• These detritivores are eaten by large carnivorous

fishes .Leaflitter……algae….crabs…..small carnivorous fish……..…
large carnivorous fish (Mangrove ecosystem)
Dead organic matter……fungi…..bacteria (Forest
ecosystem)

thus the grazing food chain derives its energy basically from
plant. While in detritus food chain it is obtained from plant
biomass, secondarily from microbial biomass and tertiarily
from carnivores .

Both the food chains occur together in natural ecosystem,

but grazing food chain usually predominates.
Characteristics of food chain

• In a food chain, there is repeated eating in which each

group eats the smaller one and is eaten by the larger
one

• In a food chain there is unidirectional flow of energy

from sun to producer and then series of consumers
• Usually 80-90% of potential energy is lost as a heat at
each transfer

• Usually there are 4-5 trophic levels in the food chain,

shorter food chain will provided greater energy

• A food chain is always straight

• Omnivores generally occupy more than 1 trophic level in

a food chain
Example of a Food Chain
 Food web
• Food web is the network of food
chains where different types of
organisms are connected at different
trophic levels ,so that option of
eating and being eaten at each
trophic level.
FOOD WEB:

A food web is a complicated system of relationships between plants,

animals, and energy. 

Understanding their connection is very important in helping to

understand any ecosystem. 

In an ecosystem one organism does not depend wholly on another.

The resources are shared especially at the beginning of the chain.

Food webs are actually made up of smaller food chains which are interconnected.

A food chain, explains what an organism might eat, and what might eat it in a
specific scenario (there are usually hundreds of different possible food chains for an
organism!). 

For example, a food chain could look like this: 

SUN (energy)-> plant (producer)->mouse>snakes>owls

Food web
 Significance of food web
• The food web provides alternate pathways of food availability
e.g. if particular crop is destroyed due to some disease ,the herbivores in that
area do not perish as these can graze on other types of crop or
herbs .greater the no of these alternate pathways more stable is the
ecosystem.

• These also help in checking over population of highly fecundity species

of plants and animals .

• Food webs also help in ecosystem development

 Ecological Pyramids

• An ecological pyramid (also trophic pyramid or energy

pyramid) is a graphical representation of trophic structure
and function of an ecosystem, starting with producer at
base and successive trophic levels forming the apex.
• Term Ecological Pyramids coined by
Charles Elton

TYPES OF ECOLOGICAL PYRAMID

Pyramid of Number
Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of Energy
 Pyramid of number
•  A pyramid of numbers is a graphical representation of the numbers of
individuals in each population in a food chain. Often it is drawn from the
autotrophic level up.
• A pyramid of numbers can be used to examine how the population of a
certain species affects another.
• Often, the autotrophic level in a pyramid of numbers is much larger than
any of the higher trophic levels, and the numbers decreases upon ascending
the pyramid.
• There are exceptions, however for example, in a tree community, a single
tree could support many different populations of larger numbers.
 Pyramid of Biomass

•  Illustrates the amount of biomass in each trophic

level
• Biomass weight is determined after dehydration
• Shows the amount of matter lost between trophic
levels.
• Measured in Kg, grams or pounds
 Pyramid of Energy

• Shows the energy available at each trophic level.

• The size of the blocks represents the proportion of
productivity.
• Measured in Joules or Calories
Energy flow in an ecosystem
Energy flow is the key function of an ecosystem .
• There is unidirectional flow of energy.

• During each transfer 80-90% energy is lost in a

form of heat in metabolic reaction e.g. respiration
and excretion.

• 10-20% of energy is available in next trophic

level.
• There is corresponding decrease in biomass

• Energy follows 1st and 2nd law of thermodynamics

First law of thermodynamics
• Energy can neither be created nor be
destroyed it can be converted from
one form to another form.
Second law of thermodynamics
Every Energy transformation involves
dissipation or degradation of energy
from concentrated to dispersed form
due to metabolic functions ,So that
only part of energy is stored in the
biomass
 Lindeman’s Energy flow model

Solar radiation (118872) Decomposition 3.0 Decomposition (Trace)

Decomposition 0.5

Autotrophs
Gross Herbivores Carnivores Not
utilized
production (G.P/15) (G.P/3.0) 1.2

(G.P/111)

Respiration 1.8
Respiration 23 Not utilized 70 Not utilized 7

Respiration 4.5
Producers can utilize only 0.1 % (111.0 gcal/cm2 /yr out of
118,872 g.al./cm2/year) of incident solar radiation in their
primary gross production or total photosynthesis.

Out of this gross production, about 21% is consumed in metabolic

functions of the autotrophs e.g respiration, growth and
reproduction; 63% remains unutilized and about 3% is utilized in
the process of decomposition so that only 13-14% (i.e.
15g.cal./cm2/year)of PG is available to the herbivores.

At herbivores, out of 15 g. cal./cm2/year, about 30% is utilized in

metabolic reaction ( even more than autotrophs); 47% of energy
available unutilized and 3% of it is utilized in decomposition so
that only 20% energy of autotrophs is utilized in secondary net
production of primary carnivores.

Process is repeated during transfer of energy from the primary to

secondary carnivores and so on.
The Carbon Cycle

Carbon-based organic molecules are essential to all organisms

Photosynthetic organisms convert CO2 to organic molecules that

are used by heterotrophs

Carbon reservoirs include fossil fuels, soils and sediments, solutes

in oceans, plant and animal biomass, the atmosphere, and
sedimentary rocks

CO2 is taken up and released through photosynthesis and

respiration

Volcanoes and the burning of fossil fuels also contribute CO2 to the
atmosphere
Figure 55.14b

CO2 in
atmosphere
Photosynthesis

Photo- Cellular
synthesis respiration

Burning
of fossil
fuels and
wood Phyto-
plankton
Consumers

Consumers

Decomposition
Phosphorus Cycle

Phosphorus is an important nutrient cycle which is shown in the

figure given below.

The reservoir of phosphorus lies in the rocks ,fossils. etc which is

excavated by man for using it as a fertilizer.
 Phosphorus Cycle (Contd.)

Farmers use the phosphate fertilizers indiscriminately and as result

excess phosphorus are lost as run –off , which cause the problem of
eutrophication or over nourishment of lakes leading to algal blooms

A good proportion of phosphates moving with surface run-off reaches the

oceans and lost into the deep sediments.

Limited supply of phosphorus lying in phosphate rocks of this earth are

thus over-exploited by man and a large part is taken out of the normal
cycle due to loss into oceans.

Human beings are making the phosphorus cycle acyclic.

Sea birds, on the other hand , are playing an important role in

phosphorus cycling. They eat sea-birds which are rich in phosphorus rich
and the droppings or excreta of the birds return phosphorus on the land.

The Guano deposits on the coasts of Peru are very rich sources of
phosphorus.
 Ecological Succession
• Is defined as an orderly process of changes in
community structure and function with time
mediated through modifications in the physical
environment and ultimately culminating in a
stabilized ecosystem known as climax.

• The whole sequence of communities which are

transitory are known as seral stages or seres
whereas the community establishing first of all in
the area is called pioneer community.
 Characteristics of ecological
succession
• A continuous change in the kinds of
animals and plants towards stability .
• Increase in the species diversity
• In an area , the plant and animals
communities undergoes succession.
• Biotic succession on a bare ground
progress towards increasing wetness,
while biotic succession in open water
progress towards increasing dryness.
• An increase in the organic matter
and biomass.
 On basis of different
substrata ecological
succession
• Hydrosere (water)
• Mesosere (moderate moisture)
• Xerosere (dry area with little
moisture)
 Xerosere
• Lithosere ( rocky surface)

• Psammosere (coastal soil)

• Halosere (saline soil)

 Process
• Nudation
• Invasion
• Competition and coaction
• Reaction
• Stabilization
Nudation : it is the development of a bare area without any life form
The bare area may be caused due to landslides, volcanic eruption etc
or due to drought, glaciers, frost etc or due to overgrazing ,disease
outbreak, agricultural/ industrial activities

Invasion : it is the successful establishment of one or more species

on a bare area through dispersal or migration followed by ecesis or
establishment. Dispersal of the seed , spores etc is brought about by
wind, water , insect or birds. Then the seeds germinate and grow on
the land. As growth and reproduction start, these pioneer species
increase in number and form group or aggregation.

Competition and coaction: As the number of individuals grows there

is competition , both inter specific and intraspecific for space , water
and nutrition. They influence each other in a number of ways known
as coaction.

Reaction: The living organisms grow , use water and nutrients from
the substratum , and in turn , they have strong influence on the
environment which is modified to a large extent and this known as
reaction. The modifications are very often such that they become
unsuitable for the existing species and favor some new species , which
replace them. Thus, reaction leads to several seral communities.
Stabilization: The succession ultimately culminates in a more or less
Stable community called climax which is in equilibrium with the
environment

The climax community is characterized by maximum biomass and

symbiotic (mutually beneficial) linkages between organisms and are
maintained quite efficiently per unit available energy.
 Hydrosere
• Free floating stage (pioneer )
• Rooted floating stage
• Reed swamp stage
• Sedge meadow stage
• Woodland stage
• Forest (climax)
• The pioneer community consist of
phytoplanktons, which are free floating algae ,
diatoms etc.
• Gradually these replaced by rooted submerged
plants followed by rooted- floating plants.
• Growth of these plants keep on adding organic
matter to the substratum by death and decay and
thus layer of soil builds up and shallowing of
water takes place.
• Then reed swamp stage follows in which the
plants are partly in water and partly on land. This
is followed by a sedge meadow stage of grasses
then by woodland consisting of shrubs and trees
and finally by a forest acting as climax.
 Xerosere
• Lichen ( pioneer)
• Mosses
• Herbs
• Shrubs
• Forest ( climax)
• This type of succession starts on bare rocks , which lacks water and
organic matter.
• The pioneer community here is crustose and foliose lichens .
• These lichens produce some weak acid and help in disintegrating
the rock ,known as weathering.
• Their growth help in building up gradually some organic matter,
humus and soil.
• Then comes the community of mosses, followed by herbs , shrubs
and finally the forest trees
• Throughout this gradual process there is slow build of organic
matter and water in the substratum
• Thus succession tends to move towards mesic conditions (moderate
condition) irrespective of the fact, whether in started from dry
( xeric ) condition or a moist ( hydric) condition and it culminates
in a stable climax community , which is usually a forest.
Segments of Environment
The Earth

1. The hydrosphere is the zone of water that covers over three-quarters

of the earth.

a. Sunlight drives the water cycle.

  b. The ability of water to absorb and release great quantities of heat
keeps climate within livable range.

2. The atmosphere is the gaseous layer near earth.

a. The atmosphere is concentrated in lowest 10 kilometers; extends
thinly out to 1,000
b. Major gases are nitrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
c. Carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.
 Atmosphere has 4 layers
• Troposphere
• Stratosphere
• Mesosphere
• Thermosphere
 Troposphere

• Starts from earth and extend across 18 km

• Lowest part of atmosphere
• Dense atmosphere
• As altitude increases temperature decreases
• All weather change took place here
• Clouds are formed here
• Tropopause separates troposphere from stratosphere
 Stratosphere
• Starts just above troposphere
• It extends upto 50 km
• Here atmosphere is dry and dense
• Temperature increases due to absorption of
u.v.radiation
• Ozone layer is present here
• Strato pause separates stratosphere from
mesosphere.
 Mesosphere
• Starts just above stratosphere
• It extends upto 85km
• Temperature again decreases as altitude
increases
• Meteorites burns and disintegrates here
• Mesopause separates mesosphere from
thermosphere
• Stratosphere &stratopause
• Mesosphere & mesopause

• Are middle layer of the atmosphere

Thermosphere
• Starts just above mesosphere
• It extends upto 600 km high
• Temp increases with altitude due to sun
energy.

• Thermosphere is subdivided into 2 layers

ionosphere and exosphere
3. The lithosphere is a rocky substratum that extends about 100 kilometers deep.

a.Weathering of rocks supplies minerals to plants and eventually forms soil.

b. Soil contains decayed organic material (humus) that recycles nutrients to plants.
       

4. The biosphere is the thin layer where life is possible between the outer
atmosphere and the lithosphere
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