INTRODUCTIONS TO

WORLD RELIGION AND

BELIEF SYSTEM
Prepared by:

APRILYN O. JAVELLANA
Lesson 1: Religion, Spirituality, Philosophy
of Religion, Theology
Learning Competency 1: Differentiate the concept, elements,
characteristics of belief system, world view, religion, and spirituality.
Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learners are expected to:
1. distinguish each concept, elements, characteristics of belief system,
world view, religion, and spirituality;
2. discern the difference of religion and spirituality; and
3. understand the elements of religion.
General Instructions Now that you are
holding this module, do the following:

1. Read and follow instructions carefully in each lesson.

2. Take note and record points for clarification.
3. Do the activities to fully understand each lesson.
4. Answer all the given tests and exercises.
Let’s Answer This! True or False. Write WORLD RELIGION if
the statement is TRUE and write BELIEF SYSTEM if the
statement is FALSE. Write the answers in your notebook.
1. Social environment and upbringing can affect a person’s religious life.
2. Monotheism is defined as a belief in the existence of one God.
3. Agnosticism believe in the existence of Holy Trinity.
4. The word religion is from the Latin word religare.
5. Karl Marx believed that religions were developed by the few as a means to control
the masses and suppress revolution.
6. Spirituality is derived from the Latin word spiritus.
7. Religion has elements.
8. Religion may be defined as an organized system of beliefs.
9. In the concept of Religion, there is no existence of diety.
10. The proponent of Animistic Theories is Robert Henry Codrington.
11. Monism is the belief of having many gods.
12. Personal spirituality is not possible without the intervention of
religion.
13. A person who value life is spiritual person.
14. Religions have their own ritual and ceremonies.
15. Spirituality is affecting one’s mind and soul.
UNDERSTANDING BELIEFS AND
WORLDVIEWS
Every individual sees and interprets the world quite differently from
one another. This overall perspective is also termed worldview which is
a collection of beliefs about life and the universe being held by people
(The Free Dictionary 2014). For a certain individual, social environment
and upbringing are critical in the development of a religious life. All
these factors have an effect on how people organize their beliefs and
ideas while eventually creating a comprehensive narrative through
which they look at the world and interrelate with it. Belief in god or
gods is found in almost all religions. There is a good reason to
presuppose that religion had existed during prehistoric times and this
has continued to the modern day.
Human life may have produced hundreds of religions and
belief systems. There could be more unknown than known
religions in the world since recorded history covers only
several thousand years of human existence.
The table enumerates the different kinds of
belief systems or worldviews.
1. Theism, often used as a synonym to monotheism, is defined as “a
belief in the existence of one god viewed as the creative source of the
human race and the world who transcends yet is immanent in the
world” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary 2014).
2. Monotheistic religions claim that there is only one God who could
have designed and created the universe or may have directed all
events that led to the creation of everything. There is one supreme
God who is both personal and moral, and who seeks a total and
unqualified response from humans (Hick 1990). Modernday examples
of monotheistic religions include Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
3. Polytheistic religions that are common among early people recognize
many principal gods among whom no one is supreme. These include
the ancient religions of Egypt, Greece, and Rome wherein people
worship a multitude of personal gods
4. Monism asserts that there is no genuine distinction between God
and the universe. Two implications arise from this belief. Firstly, it
contends that God is dwelling in the universe as part of it. Secondly, the
universe does not exist at all as a reality but only as a manifestation of
God
5. Atheists deny the existence of God, agnostics deny the possibility for
man to acquire knowledge of the existence of God.
 DEFINITION AND NATURE OF
RELIGION
defined as “an organized system of beliefs, ceremonies, and rules used to
worship a god or a group of gods” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary 2014).
The Latin word religio refers to “something done with overanxious or
scrupulous attention to detail” (Bowker 1997).
This term may have probably been derived from the Latin verb religare which
means “to tie together, to bind fast.” In its original sense, the word refers to
expression of proper piety, that is, binding to god (Grassie 2010)
religion was used to designate formal belief systems and tenets. The term was
eventually applied to what we now call as religion because of the manner in
which people performed rituals during those days. While religion may be
universal in all stages of human history, it does not follow that all individuals
are religious or even religious to some degree (Parrinder 1971).
The figure illustrates the different characteristics that are common to most major
religions.
WHERE DID RELIGION
ORIGINATED?
ORIGINS OF RELIGION
Since the nineteenth century, people began to show
great interest in explaining the origins of religion. In
fact, numerous theories have been postulated to
explain the origin of religion while looking at primitive
societies for ideas concerning the development of
belief systems
(Hendry 1999). Archaeologists believe that they have discovered
elements of religious belief practised by Homo sapiens almost
60,000 years ago. Apart from burying the dead, various items such
as foods, tools, and other objects were placed inside the site. All
these rituals imply reverence to their loved ones and perhaps the
thought that the dead will utilize these materials in the afterlife.
While they believe in the presence of supernatural entities, they
also try to communicate with them (Ember & Ember 1996). Various
explanations have surfaced that somehow tend to simplify or even
denigrate primitive religions. Others maintain that since early
humans are weak and ignorant of the different forces of nature,
they had to invent religion to explain the seemingly unexplainable
mystery and fury of nature. In the process, they had to create a
scheme of deities and spirits
. Still others contend that religion was conceived by the
few to stifle and repress the ideals of the masses
(Hopfe 1983). The nineteenth century witnessed the
development of the fields of the social sciences that
enabled scholars to apply a more scientific way of
explaining phenomena rather than speculate on
matters concerning the origin of religion. Through field
research, observations, and analysis of historical
documents, scholars formulated a number of theories
that have endured well into the present time. Table 1.3
summarizes the different theories on the origin of
religion and the major proponents of these theories.
7 BASIC ELEMENTS OF RELIGION Following
are the 7 most basic elements of religion in sociology.
1. Beliefs. It is the sensation of brain we have beliefs in one God, Dooms
day, Angels, Sacred books, good and bad Luck, while Hindus believe in
more than one God.
2. Religious Organization. Religion is an organization of beliefs, rituals and
emotions. No religion without organization can survive. Every religion has
its own structure and function and every individual performing his role is
that organization. For example, Thousands of people gather at Eid-ul-Fitr
and Eid-ul-Azha and people perform the Hajj activities which show an
organization structure of the religion Islam. The role of Prophets, Imams,
Pirs, priests, Tableegh-e-Jamat is within that structure. Kalma, Zakat, Roza,
Hajj and Namaz are organized and form a complete structure of religion
Islam.
3. Emotions. Emotions of hope, fear, reverence and humility
are the products of religious rituals. The individual performs
religious rituals and attached with emotions. These emotions
have close contact with rituals and an individual avoid sins and
bows before Almighty Allah. Emotions are the feelings to show
the reality of God.
4. Ritual & Ceremonies. All religions have their own ritual and
ceremonies. These are the emotional and ceremonial
practices. In Islam, prayers to God, Ablution, fasting, recitation
of the Holy Quran are the religious rituals.
5.Sacred Objects. It has its own sacred objects. For Hindus idols, temples,
Cow, river of Ganga and Jamna are sacred. For Christians the cross,
Church, and Bible are the sacred objects while for Muslims. The holy
Quran, Mosque, Baithullah, Crescent are sacred objects. Symbols.
Symbols are the signs used for sacred objects or situation.
6. Symbols give meaning t human behavior. For example, when Muslims
hear “Azan”, they show a typical behavior and keep quiet. The Baithullah
and Mosque are the symbols, of god while prayer is the symbol of
humility before God.
7. Sects. There are small groups within a religion called sects. Sects have
their own religious followers. In Christianity, there are Catholics, and
protestants while is Islam these sects are Shias, Sunnis, Ahle Hadith,
Wahabies etc. Among them every one claims to be true but one of them
is on the path of righteousness which is the true religion Islam.
EXPLORING SPIRITUALITY
A comparative analysis of major religions reveals that an
important characteristic of their belief system focuses on the
longing for value in life (Parrinder 1971). For thousands of
years, people have been searching and yearning to understand
the mystery of life and the universe. There may come a point
in time when an individual realizes that life is not entirely
accidental and meaningless (Parrinder 1971). This is where the
concept of spirituality comes in with the term “spiritual” being
defined as “relating or affecting the human spirit or soul as
opposed to material or physical things” (Oxford Dictionaries
2014).
One author points out that it is quite common for people to
say that they are “spiritual, not religious” (Grassie 2010).
Spirituality may be manifested in quite a number of ways. For
example, a person may believe in the presence of an
overwhelming power greater than oneself or perhaps a
person can be fully mindful of one’s purpose in life. That
person can also have a feeling of oneness or a bond with other
living beings. While spirituality is derived from the Latin word
spiritus, its verb root is spirare which means “to breathe”
literally. There is an impression that people are surrounded by
a “divine reality as pervasive, intimate, necessary, and invisible
as the air we breathe” which is similar to Hindu prana and
Chinese chi (Grassie 2010).
While religions are frequently viewed as set of ideals practiced
and followed by organized groups, “spirituality is something an
individual can have without being implicated in the
ambivalent complexity of human societies and institutions”
(Grassie 2010). Although traditional spirituality is frequently
associated with religiosity, many people assert that personal
spirituality can grow separately from religion. One may find
inner peace, satisfaction, and contentment in life that are truly
independent of religious dogmas and tenets. In the study of
religion, there are basic concepts that need to be understood
such as theology, philosophy of religion, and spirituality.
While religion refers to any set of attitudes, beliefs, and
practices concerning a supernatural power—theology involves
the systematic study of the existence and nature of the divine.
It deals with the study of the nature and purpose of god that
may be undertaken using a particular perspective. Theology is
a study, not a formulation of religious beliefs. On the other
hand, philosophy of religion deals primarily with issues
concerning religion, which includes analysis on the existence
of a divine being or on sacred texts. It may involve studying
the “concepts and belief systems of the religions as well as the
prior phenomena of religious experience and
the activities of worship and meditation on which these belief systems
rest and out of which they have arisen” (Hick 1990). It seeks to analyze
various concepts such as god, spirit, karma, creation, immortality,
heaven, hell, and purgatory among others. Philosophy of religion is not
a branch of theology but a branch of philosophy. It is said that this
particular study need not be undertaken from a religious perspective at
all because atheists, agnostics, and the person of faith can and do
philosophize about religion (Hick 1990).
Meanwhile, spirituality is something an individual can have without
being implicated in the ambivalent complexity of human societies and
institutions (Grassie 2010). Thus, spirituality can be described as one's
integrative view of life and involves a quest for the meaning and
ultimate value of life as opposed to an instrumentalist or materialistic
attitude to life. Hence, one can be spiritual without being religious.
Differentiate the difference of Religion and Spirituality. Give
10 differences each. Write your response in your notebook.
RELIGION SPIRITUALITY
True or False. Write WORLD RELIGION if the
statement is TRUE and write BELIEF SYSTEM if the
statement is FALSE. Write the answers in your ¼ pad of paper.
1. Social environment and upbringing can affect a person’s
religious life.
2. Monotheism is defined as a belief in the existence of one
God.
3. Agnosticism believe in the existence of Holy Trinity.
4. The word religion is from the Latin word religare.
5. Karl Marx believed that religions were developed by the few
as a means to control the masses and suppress revolution.
6. Spirituality is derived from the Latin word spiritus.
7. Religion has elements.
8. Religion may be defined as an organized system of beliefs.
9. In the concept of Religion, there is no existence of diety.
10. The proponent of Animistic Theories is Robert Henry Codrington.
11. Monism is the belief of having many gods.
12. Personal spirituality is not possible without the intervention of
religion.
13. A person who value life is spiritual person.
14. Religions have their own ritual and ceremonies.
15. Spirituality is affecting one’s mind and soul
ORIGIN OF WORLD RELIGIONS
ORIGIN OF WORLD RELIGIONS
Origin of World Religions Similar to living organisms, religions
are born in history and they gradually develop into living
traditions and affect the lives of their followers. Belief systems
originate in certain localities within the context of culture and
even geography. From their rudimentary forms, religions
continually evolved into complicated systems replete with
rites and practices that made recruitment of members
necessary. Quite unfortunately, other religions also decline as
in the case of Zoroastrianism that once flourished in South
Asia but is now only confined to Iran, India, and Central Asia.
They may also give impetus to establish new movements within
religious groups, such as in the case of Buddhism that may be viewed as
a reaction to the overly ritualistic beliefs and the exclusivity of
Hinduism. They may also contribute to the foundation of other
religions, such as those themes Christianity borrowed from Judaism,
and themes Islam borrowed from both Christianity and Judaism
(Brasswell 1994). This lesson will deal with the origin of religions along
with the geographical context and cultural milieu that have impacted
the establishment of world religions and belief systems.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Scholars hold the view that religion is universal and can be
found in all known contemporary societies (Ember & Ember
1997). Even the most fundamental of belief systems can be
seen to a greater or lesser degree in all religions (Hopfe 1983).
Various theories have been formulated to explain the origin of
religion. Even prehistoric humans, such as the Neanderthals
and Cro-Magnons, have practiced a set of belief systems in
one way or another, including burying their dead, painting on
the walls of caves, and carving images from stones.
The existence of humankind for so long a time has
resulted in the formation of religion and belief system.
It is certain that many religions may have been
unrecorded in the past. Others may have gradually died
down. This lesson will deal primarily with religions that
are still active until the present time. The succeeding
table illustrates some significant dates in the history of
the establishment of several world religions.
The Patriarch Abraham
The prophet and patriarch Abraham played a major role in the
establishment of the three monotheistic religions: namely, Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam, which account for more than half of the world’s
total population at present. As such, these organized religions are
collectively known as Abrahamic religions. The Jewish people regard
Abraham as the ancestor of the Israelites, through his descendants
Isaac and Jacob.
The Muslims consider Abraham’s son Ishmael as the
ancestor of the Arabs. The Christians view Abraham as
‘father in faith’ as narrated in the Bible and the ancestor of
Jesus Christ. Notable religious personalities trace their
origin in Abraham’s sons from different wives through their
descendants. The importance of Abraham in these three
religions lies in the fact that the patriarch appears as an
elemental figure for a monotheistic belief system and a
paragon of extreme devotion. Derived from a common
source, it is but natural that the three monotheistic
religions share some commonalities in their basic tenets.
For one, they all worship one supreme being.
The ancient Hebrews call their God Elohim, Adonai, or Yahweh.
Present-day Judaism uses the names “Lord” and “God.” For the
Muslims, they call their God as Allah. In addition, prophets and apostles
play major roles in these religions. Judaism has 48 prophets and seven
prophetesses. Early prophets include Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Moses,
Aaron, and Joshua to name a few. In Christianity, the 12 apostles were
the primary disciples of Jesus Christ, some of whom wrote parts of the
New Testament.
For the Muslims, they believe that Muhammad is the final
prophet or the “Seal of the Prophets.” Prior to their
establishment as organized religions, the role of divine
revelation or intervention is associated among their
progenitors. For instance, God instructed Abraham to sacrifice
his son Isaac at Mount Moriah. God presented the Ten
Commandments to Moses at Mount Sinai. God sacrificed his
son Jesus Christ through crucifixion as the plan to salvation.
God commanded Muhammad to establish a new religion at a
cave in Mount Hira. Then and now, followers of the three
Abrahamic religions are presented with a choice between
good and evil.
The Indian Mosaic
With its history dating back to at least 6500 B.C.E., India is one
of the world’s oldest surviving civilizations. The many
conquerors that came to India were gradually absorbed into
the native Indian religions. With great movements of various
people in the past came their customs, arts, languages,
literature, beliefs, and many more facets of their culture. The
Harappan civilization, the Aryan influence, the local dynasties,
and the Muslim conquest all had their fair share in building
the intricate Indian mosaic. As a result, variety and complexity
characterize Indian culture. Religion is an essential part of the
Indian tradition.
Four great religions originated in India – Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and
Sikhism – and a myriad of minor cults and local sects. Even Muslims and
Christians have found their way into the Indian heartland along with the
Jews and Zoroastrians. Hinduism perfectly reflects Indian heterogeneity
with its eclectic, diversified, and assorted ways of religious expressions that
are quite confusing to outsiders. It has no specific founder, no one sacred
book, and with innumerable gods and goddesses that any Hindu can
venerate. As such, Hinduism can be considered as a ‘museum of religions’
(Israel and Grewal 1989).
It was during the Vedic Period that Hinduism or Sanatana
Dharma became systematized as a religion that preached
order and purpose to the cosmos and human life. During this
period, universal order became equated with a stable society
as evidenced by the establishment of a centralized
government and the integration of collective traditions into
Indian lives. On the other hand, whereas many religions focus
on the worship of one god, many gods, or a celestial being,
Buddhism centers its attention on the figure of the Buddha.
He was not a god but a human being who came to discover
how to terminate sufferings in order to escape the painful and
continuous cycle of rebirth (Coogan 2005).
Buddhist followers revere Buddha in the same way that
members of 22 other world religions worship their
gods. The Mahayana sect of Buddhism differs from the
Theravada school because of its rich array of buddhas
and bodhisattvas who have attained spiritual
enlightenment. These beings are already eligible to
enter nirvana but choose to delay this glorious path to
guide others to the path of salvation. Born near the end
of the 6th century B.C.E., Siddhartha Gautama’s life is
closely linked with the historical and religious
development of Buddhism in India.
Gaining new converts due to its mass appeal as
compared to the exclusivity of Hindu beliefs, Buddhism
spread far and wide from India to Sri Lanka and to
Southeast Asia. The religion was transported to China
and gained much headway as it reached Korea, Japan,
and Vietnam. Across the Himalayas, it reached the
Tibetan lands. Presently, Buddhism has become more
popular outside its place of origin while Hinduism has
remained entrenched in India throughout many
centuries.
The Way of the Dao
Chinese civilization is one of the world’s oldest, dating back almost
4,000 years ago. Even during the olden days, the Chinese had already
endeavoured to establish and attain good governance (Perry 1988).
China adopted Kung Fu-Tzu's (Confucius) ideals and ethics as the nation
developed meritocracy as a basis for government officials. Confucius is
regarded as China’s greatest philosopher and teacher who lived at the
same time as Siddhartha Gautama in India (Perry 1988). Confucian
ideals aspire to harmonize human relations and serve as guide to social
behavior.
Providing a backdrop for traditional Chinese values, Chinese dynasties
used Confucian morals and political ideals that became influential
among the Chinese people. The Confucian principles can be applied at
the levels of individual, community, and state. It is no wonder that
Confucian values can be seen in the Chinese method of governance,
the merit of one’s education, and importance of order in the society
(Rozman 1991). An ideal human society is of utmost concern for
Confucian followers. Meanwhile, mysteries abound the birth and
personal life of Laozi (Lao-tzu) who may have written Dao De Jing (Tao
Te Ching or The Book of the Way and its Power) around the 6th century
B.C.E. Other sources indicate that he lived during the period of the
Warring States around the 5th or 4th century B.C.E.
Believed to be a contemporary of Confucius, he once worked
as government archivist or record keeper at the time of the
Zhou Dynasty but soon left the service due to his frustration
with corruption. Around 142 C.E., Daoism began as an
organized religion with the establishment of the Way of the
Celestial Masters sect by Zhang Daoling during the Han
Dynasty. This group along with other later Daoist sects devised
intricate rituals, venerated heavenly beings, and wrote
numerous religious texts. The writings of Daoism centers on
the concept of Dao as a way or path signifying
appropriateness of one’s behavior to lead other people.
Similar with Daoism, the writings of Confucius frequently dwell upon
the theme of the Dao understood as being the truth or way things
ought to be done concordant with a specific view to life, politics, and
customs. This Confucian view is somehow close to the meaning of Dao
in Daoism which means a road, path, or way in which one does
something. The Confucian Dao principally concerns human affairs while
the Daoist Dao means the way the universe works. Both Confucius and
Lao-tzu were followers of the Dao. With regard to the art of leadership,
try to compare the following passages as lifted from the sacred texts of
the Analects of Confucius and the Dao De Jing by Lao-tzu.
On the other hand, Shintoism is a loosely organized local belief of Japan,
somewhat an ardent religious form of Japanese patriotism (Hopfe 1893).
Its mythology highlights the superiority of Japan over other lands.
Shrines celebrate great heroes and important events in Japan’s history.
Japanese people believed that their emperors literally descended from
the sun goddess Amaterasu. Conscious effort is being done to revere the
beauty of Japan’s lands, especially mountains. The term ‘Shinto’ was
coined around the sixteenth century C.E. to distinguish native belief
system from the imported religions of China and Korea, including
Buddhism, Daoism, and Confucianism. The term actually originated from
the Chinese words shen and tao roughly translated as the ‘way of the
gods’. Of primal importance were the kami that were often defined as
gods but could also refer to deities of heaven and earth, or even spirits in
human beings, animals, trees, seas, and mountains (Hopfe 1983).
 GEOGRAPHY OF FAITH
Laws and social norms vary by region and localities. The study about
geography of religion may reveal some fascinating truths why a certain
country is predominated by one particular religion or why a specific region
became homeland of great religions.
The Western Frontier
West Asia is home of three great religions, namely, Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam. Comprising the area bordered on the west by
the fertile coasts of the Mediterranean Sea and on the east by the arid
deserts of Arabia, the history of these religions is closely linked with
this region. Countries closest to the eastern part of the Mediterranean
Sea north of the Arabian Sea and south of Turkey, sometimes called the
Levant, have experienced numerous religious cataclysms in their
existence as nation-states. These include Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Syria,
and Palestine. Gaining independence in 1944, Lebanon has undergone
a protracted civil war from 1975 to 1990 between Christians and
Muslims. During that time, while the Christians controlled wealth and
power, majority of Muslims felt discriminated.
Around 250,000 lives were lost as a result of the
conflict. After 1917, many Jews migrated from Europe
to their ancient homeland, Palestine. In 1948, Israel
was established after driving away the Palestinian
Arabs who had been living in the area for centuries.
The long drawn-out war between Israel and Arab
countries has resulted in the deaths of many Jews and
Muslims from both sides. Israel remains the only
country in the world with a Jewishmajority population
comprising almost 75% of its citizens. Within Israel are
Muslims that constitute 16% of the population
There is a continuing unrest among the Palestinian population
as a result of Israeli policies that run counter to their
nationalist ideals. Needless to say, religions have increasingly
become involved in the domestic politics of nation-states and
between nations as well (Brasswell 1994). The Arabian
Peninsula, the world’s largest peninsula, consists of countries
that are predominantly Islamic in character. These countries
include Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, United Arab
Emirates, Yemen, and Oman. Most West Asian countries
follow the Shi’a and Sunni denominations of Islam. Majority of
Muslims in Iraq and Iran associate themselves with the Shi’a
sect. Meanwhile, majority of Muslims in Saudi Arabia belong
to the Sunni branch.
What geographical features of this arid land could have
influenced the growth, evolution, and expansion of these
religions from the time of the great patriarch Abraham until
the rise of the prophet Muhammad? Located directly south of
Eastern Europe, West Asia contains some of the world’s most
desolate environments. The Arabian Peninsula situated on the
northeastern part of Africa is almost completely a baking hot
desert where no plants can thrive. The topography of West
Asia is characterized by vast areas of mountainous terrains.
Mountains play significant roles in many religious beliefs as
these landforms provide ideal settings where gods live or
where gods and mortals meet. In the Judeo-Christian region of
West Asia and Egypt, there are four sacred mountains listed in
the table below.
The Temple Mount is one of the most sacred sites in the world
revered by the Jews, Christians, and Muslims. Three structures
are found in the present site that include the Al-Aqsa Mosque,
the Dome of the Rock, and the Dome of the Chain. The Jewish
people consider the Temple Mount as their holiest shrine.
Mount Moriah is also believed to be the site of sacrifice of Isaac
by Abraham. Meanwhile, vast expanse of deserts and bodies of
water in West Asia also figure significantly in biblical history.
From the Book of Exodus, it narrates Yam Suph being crossed by
the Israelites as they escaped from Egyptian lands. Yam Suph is
believed to be the present-day Red Sea which is an extension of
the Indian Ocean located between Africa and Asia. The modern-
day translation of Yam Suph is “Sea of Reeds.”
For many years, the Israelites lived in the wilderness at the Sinai Desert
en route to the Promised Land. It is believed that the spiritual cleansing
of one’s self transpires in the desert. Another body of water mentioned
in the Bible is the Dead Sea along with the dwelling caves near it at the
time of David. The Dead Sea is a landlocked salt lake between Israel and
Jordan. Presently, followers of the three Abrahamic religions place high
regard on the city of Jerusalem in Israel because of the numerous sites
that are central to their belief system. In Jerusalem, there are more
than a thousand synagogues, more than a hundred churches, and more
than 70 mosques.
Jerusalem has been sacred for the Jews almost three thousand years
now with the city being the site of the First Temple (King Solomon’s
Temple) and the Second Temple. The Western Wall (Wailing Wall or
Kotel), one of the four remaining walls that surrounded the Temple
Mount, is the second holiest shrine for the Jews. Meanwhile, the city
has been revered by the Christians for almost two thousand years now.
Important Christian sites include Mount Zion and the Church of the
Holy Sepulchre which is the site of the Golgotha (or the place of
crucifixion) and the empty tomb of Jesus Christ. Lastly, the city has
been held sacred by the Muslims for almost 1400 years now. For the
Sunni Muslims, it is their third holiest city. Located at the Temple
Mount, the Islamic Dome of the Rock is the most recognizable structure
in Jerusalem.
The Indian Subcontinent
The subcontinent of South Asia covers an area of more than one and a
half million square miles stretching from the Hindu Kush and Baluchi
Hills on the west and the Great Himalayan mountain range on the
north, to the Burmese mountain on the east and the Indian Ocean on
the south (Wolpert 1993). More than 4000 years ago, a civilization
emerged along the Indus River that developed a unique and
exceptional culture long before the dawn of the Christian era. Invasions
from people originating in Macedonia and Central Asia have added
diversity to India’s population and complexity to its culture (Wolpert
1993).
Because sweltering heat is one major feature of India’s
ecological setting, it is no wonder that Hindus revere the sun
(Surya) and fire (Agni). Likewise, water also plays a major role
in the Indian psyche as evidenced by Hindus venerating a god
of water and celestial oceans (Varuna). The South Asian
countries of India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh depend mightily
on the rivers Indus, GangaYamuna, and Brahmaputra.
Traversing the great plains of north India, the Ganga (Ganges)
is the holiest river for the Hindus. From its point of origin to its
confluence with the ocean, many ancient pilgrimage sites and
cities line up along the Ganga that include Rishikesh, Haridwar,
Prayag, and Varanasi.
Even Buddhists consider Varanasi an important religious site.
During the olden days, there was once a deer park in Samath
which is now a residential area in Varanasi. Here, Siddhartha
Gautama gave his first sermon about the principles of
Buddhism. It is presently marked by the Dhamek Stupa shrine.
The Buddha also met his first disciples at this place which is
now commemorated by the Chaukhandi Stupa monument
(Douglas 2007). It is worth noting, however, that Buddhism is
not widely held in India but rather in the neighboring
countries located in South Asia, East Asia, and Southeast Asia.
The Eastern End At the eastern end of the great Asian continent one
finds the cultural and political dominance of China. Stretching more
than 5,000 kilometers across the Asian landmass, it is bordered by
various bodies of water in the east and land borders in all other
directions. China’s population is concentrated primarily in the eastern
and southern parts where agricultural activities flourish. Deserts (such
as the Gobi and Taklamakan) and plateaus dominate the northern and
western territory of China that served as natural barriers from foreign
invaders coming from that front. As such, the great Chinese civilization
developed entirely on its own without interference from outside forces.
Chinese culture practically influenced all other countries at its outskirts,
including Japan and Korea.
The supremacy of China on the eastern front 27 can be
explained by the role of its environment and geography that
includes vast alluvial plains, extensive fertile valleys, and a
pleasant climate. The location of China proper in the valleys of
two great bodies of water, the Huang He and Yangtze, is quite
favorable because of the support these streams provide to the
Chinese people that made historic China the center of culture.
Geographically speaking, the farming people of the river valley
were isolated from the rest of Asia because of deserts and
mountains.
From these river valleys emerged small states now controlled by the
first recorded dynasties in China, the Shang and the Zhou. Soon after,
states began to centralize, established a taxation system, organized
military organizations, and imposed codes of law (Perry 1989). Public
officials and bureaucrats who were also scholars, philosophers, and
teachers gained prominence because of their interest in politics and
government. It is within this context that the great teacher Confucius
became fascinated with ethical questions and morality in government
affairs. Confucius, the main person behind this emerging social
philosophy, did not intend to start a new religion but rather expound on
the nature of order and stability in the society. For Confucius, this was
not the result of stringent laws but of the rituals and ceremonies
undertaken by people who have become civilized through time.
Only a refined society can achieve lasting social order. With
the growth of Confucianism and the development of urban
Chinese culture, the ecstatic and religious nature of
shamanism began to decline in China. It was only during the
second millennium after the death of Confucius in 479 B.C.E.
that the teachings and ideals identified with his philosophy
spread in China (Rozman 1991). By the time of the Han
Dynasty, Confucian teachings had become the state religion
(Palmer 1996). In Korea, it began to be disseminated
extensively around the 15th century. In Japan, it was accepted
by the majority during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Meanwhile, Daoism emerged in response to the widespread
warfare and social turmoil that besieged the Zhou Dynasty. It
served as the guiding principle to abandon and withdraw from
the disorder brought about by incessant struggle for power,
wealth, and prestige. The common people began to oppose
the rising authoritarian rule and the rigidity of the moralists
who were Confucian supporters. Daoist followers aspired for
autonomy in the midst of social adversities and for conformity
to social patterns with the aim of attaining social harmony.
Korea experienced a great deal of exposure to Chinese culture
with the Han and Tang Dynasties maintaining close ties with
the Koreans.
As the three kingdoms of Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje were
being influenced by China, Korea also adopted Buddhism and
Confucianism from the mainland. A small country compared
to China, Korea had to adopt the Confucian model of
harmonious family relations. Eventually, Korea was able to
guarantee its sovereignty from China and develop its own
culture that is uniquely Korean in style. Relatively distant from
China when compared to Korea, Japan also had a fair share of
China’s influence that became entrenched in Japanese culture.
Japanese envoys to China picked the useful aspects of Chinese
culture, imported and adapted these elements to their own
genius and need (Latourette 1964).
The Japanese feudal system embraced the ideals of
Confucianism. Ancestor worship complemented
elements of Confucianism and Daoism that
underscored the concept of filial piety. Between the 4th
and 8th centuries, Japan experienced major cultural
change. The entry of Buddhism in Japan had a direct
effect in the religious traditions of Japan and its
reaction was fourfold. Firstly, the name ‘Shinto’ was
introduced to differentiate the native belief from the
new foreign religions.
Secondly, local Shinto followers acknowledged that the
numerous buddhas and bodhisattvas were revelations of the
kami. Buddhists reversed this notion and considered kami as
Japanese revelations of these celestial beings. Thirdly, there
came a fusion or syncretism between Shintoism and Buddhism
and for 10 centuries they lived side by side in Japan while
serving the spiritual needs of the people. Lastly, Japan
developed a unique form of Buddhism taking its fullest
meditative form under Zen. (Hopfe 1983).
THE CULTURAL MILIEU
World religions can be regarded along the lines of their exclusivity or
non exclusivity. Exclusive religions are oftentimes monotheistic with
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as examples. Meanwhile, non-exclusive
religions are often polytheistic in nature. Examples of non-exclusive
religions are Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and
Shintoism.
On Monotheism and Universality
Monotheism or the belief in one God is an ancient idea that predated
the establishment of Abrahamic religions. From the three Abrahamic
religions, however, Christianity has somewhat differed based on its
concept of the trinitarian creed in contrast to the unitarian creed. While
Judaism and Islam affirm the presence of one god, Christianity
acknowledges one God in three persons: the Father, the Son, and the
Holy Spirit. God having three persons could also mean three persons
and one substance as forwarded by the Church Father Tertullian (c. 155
– 240 C.E.).
The basic principles of the Muslim faith are reflected in the “Five Pillars
of Islam.” The first pillar as the profession of the Muslim faith succinctly
states that “there is no God but Allah.” Simply put, there are no gods,
but only Allah. Allah is eternal, creator, omnipotent, infinitely good,
merciful, but harsh on those who oppose his will (Jomier 1999).
Muslims are urged to worship Allah alone and avoid veneration of
transitory things of the world (Frager 2002).
Both Christianity and Islam are considered universalizing
religions because they attempt to operate on a global scale
and are not inextricably linked to any nation, ethnicity, or
place as opposed to ethnic religions that attract one group of
people residing in one locality. Universalizing religions have a
variety of means to transmit their principles and their
followers believe that what they think is appropriate for
humankind. Because these religions originated from a certain
founder, they are relatively younger than ethnic religions, such
as Hinduism, Confucianism, or Daoism. These types of
religions actively seek out new recruits, hence, conversion
here is quite easy.
They have many members who belong to diverse groups of
people because everyone is a welcome addition to these
religions. On the other hand, Judaism can be considered an
ethnic religion because it draws members from a specific
group of people from a definite locality with most of its
practices and rituals performed continuously throughout
generations. Rituals and holidays belonging to the ethnic
religions are based on the cycle of harvest that are quite
different in the celebrations for universalizing religions that
are often anchored upon the life stories of their