Cardiovascular System

Functions of Blood
• Blood transports
dissolved gases, nutrients,
hormones, and wastes to
and from all tissues of the
body.

Circulatory system of the human

head, from Body Worlds.
• Blood regulates many aspects of homeostasis, including body
temperature, pH, and electrolyte levels.
• Blood can coagulate, or solidify in response to an injury through
the use of enzymes and other proteins.
• White blood cells
and antibodies
provide
immunity by
disabling and
removing bacteria,
viruses, and other
foreign
compounds.
• Blood stabilizes body
temperature by
absorbing heat from
muscles and
distributing it
throughout the body.

Incheon International Airport: thermal imaging

system screening passengers for the H1N1 flu.
Composition of Blood
• Blood is made of three
components, each of
which can be seen when
it is spun through a
centrifuge.
▫ Plasma
▫ White blood cells and
platelets
▫ Red blood cells
• Plasma is a mixture of
92% water, proteins,
nutrients, electrolytes, and
wastes.
• The proteins include:
▫ Albumin, which helps to
transport lipids.
▫ Globulin, which includes
antibodies that attach to
bacteria and viruses.
▫ Fibrinogen, which is part
of blood clotting.
Blood Cells
• Erythrocytes, also
called red blood cells,
transport oxygen from
the lungs to body cells.
▫ Biconcave disk shape
allows them to move
through capillaries.
▫ Each cell contains
hemoglobin, a
protein that binds to
oxygen.
• Hemoglobin causes the red color of blood and red blood cells.
▫ Blood is only red – never blue or purple.

Blood with oxygen, blood without oxygen.

Leukocytes and Platelets
• White blood cells, or
leukocytes, circulate
throughout blood and
fight disease and
infection.
▫ Leukocytes are larger than
red blood cells and have a
nucleus.
• Platelets are fragments
of cells that aid in blood
clotting.
Blood Filtration
• The spleen is a brown,
flat, abdominal organ that:
▫ Removes and recycles old
red blood cells.
▫ Holds a reserve of blood.
▫ Produces antibodies,
proteins that attach to and
disable bacteria and
viruses.
▫ Filters bacteria and viruses.
• Lymph nodes contain
large numbers of leukocytes
that help to filter bacteria,
viruses, foreign particles,
and cancer cells.
Hematopoesis
• Red blood cells are
anucleate, so they cannot
divide by mitosis.
• Hematopoesis, or
erythryocyte production,
occurs within red bone
marrow, and is regulated by
the kidneys.
• Blood cell production is
controlled through a
negative feedback cycle:
• Drop in blood O2 levels:
▫ Kidneys release the hormone
erythropoietin →
Bone marrow releases more
red blood cells.
• Normal O2 levels:
▫ Kidneys stop producing
erythropoietin → Blood cell
production stops.
Blood Types
• The surface of each red blood cell is covered with proteins called
antigens.
▫ These are identification markers used by the body to determine self
vs. foreign cells.
• A person’s blood type is
the result of three
antigens:
▫ ABO blood type is
determined by the
presence of A and B
antigens.
▫ Positive or negative
blood type is
determined by the
presence of the Rh
antigen.
• Blood type is detected
through an
agglutination test,
where antibodies are
added to a blood sample.

• Clumping, or
agglutination, indicates a
positive result.
Transfusions
• Transfusions transfer
donated blood from one
individual to another.
• A hemolytic reaction
takes place when the
immune system of the
recipient attacks the blood
cells from the donor.
▫ These can be minimized
by matching compatible
blood types.
• A patient can safely
receive blood that
contains the same
antigens as them or
fewer.
▫ O- is the universal
donor because it will
not cause a reaction in
any patient.
▫ AB+ is the universal
recipient, because
these patients can safely
receive any blood type.
Blood Disorders
• When diagnosing
blood disorders,
doctors will order
a complete
blood count
(CBC) that
analyzes the
number of each
blood cell and
platelet.
• Anemia is a lack of red
blood cells and/or
hemoglobin.

• Blood donors are tested

for anemia by placing a
drop of blood in copper
sulfate and seeing how
long it takes to sink.
• Iron deficiency anemia limits the
production of erythrocytes.

• Pernicious anemia is caused by a

deficiency in B vitamins.

• Sickle-cell anemia is a genetic

disorder that causes misshapen
erythrocytes.
• Polycythemia is a condition where the percentage of red blood
cells is too high.
▫ Results in high blood pressure and a risk of blood clot formation.
• Leukemia is a form of
cancer that causes an
overproduction and
release of immature white
blood cells.
▫ The white blood cells are
nonfunctional, increasing
the rate of infection.
▫ Erythrocyte production
decreases, reducing
oxygen transport.
▫ Platelet production
decreases, reducing
clotting.
Circulatory System
• The circulatory system
includes the heart and all
the blood vessels that
circulate throughout the
body.
▫ The pulmonary circuit
carries blood between the
lungs and the heart.
▫ The systemic circuit
carries blood between the
heart and the rest of the
body.
• The heart is a muscular
organ that serves as a
double-pump for blood:
▫ The right side pumps
blood through the
pulmonary circuit.
▫ The left side pumps
blood through the
systemic circuit.
 Aorta

Right Pulmonary Artery Left Pulmonary Artery

Superior Vena Cava

Left Pulmonary Veins
Right Pulmonary Veins
Left Atrium

Right Atrium

Left Ventricle

Coronary Arteries

Inferior Vena Cava

Right
Ventricle Apex
 Aorta

Right Pulmonary
Artery Left Pulmonary
Artery
Superior Vena Cava Left Pulmonary
Veins
Right Pulmonary Veins
Left Atrium
Coronary Sinus Pulmonary Valve

Right Atrium Aortic Valve

Mitral Valve

Tricuspid Valve Left Ventricle

Bundle Branches Myocardium (thickest
area)

Inferior Vena Cava

• The heart has four valves
that allow blood to move
forward while preventing
backflow.
▫ Tricuspid Valve –
Right atrium and
ventricle.
▫ Mitral Valve – Left
atrium and ventricle.
▫ Aortic Valve – Aorta
and left ventricle.
▫ Pulmonary Valve –
Right ventricle and
pulmonary trunk.
• The coronary arteries
supply the heart muscle
with oxygen.
• Deoxygenated blood from
heart muscle is collected
in the coronary sinus in
the right atrium.
The Pacemaker
• Cardiac muscle cells are able to
contract in a regular pattern
without any input from the
brain.
• The sinoatrial node
originates an electrical impulse,
which travels across the atria.
• The atrioventricular node
then receives the signal and
passes it through two bundle
branches.
• The bundle branches
transmit the impulse towards
the apex.

• Purkinje fibers carry the

contraction impulse through
the muscle of the right and left
ventricles, causing them to
contract.
Electrocardigrams
• Electrocardiograms, or ECGs, measure electrical impulses
coming from the heart, creating a graph of the output.
• Each change on the ECG is
given a letter label and
corresponds to a specific
change in the heart.
▫ P wave: Atria contract.
▫ QRS wave: Ventricles
contract.
▫ T wave: Ventricles relax
and reset.
• The normal, resting heart rate for most people is between 60-100
beats per minute.
• Bradycardia is a heart rate that is below 60 beats per minute.
• Tachycardia is a contraction of the ventricles or atria at a rate
above 100 beats per minute.
Heart Attack
• A heart attack is caused by a
blockage in one of the
coronary arteries,
disrupting flow of oxygenated
blood
to the heart muscle.
• A coronary bypass transplants a vein from another part of the
body (usually the leg) onto the heart.
▫ Blood is re-routed around the blockage.
• In an angioplasty, a narrow
balloon is inserted into the
blocked vessel. It is then
inflated, expanding the vessel.
• If the vessel does not stay
expanded on its own, a mesh-
like stent can be inserted to
hold it open.
• Hypertrophic
cardiomyopathy is an
abnormal thickening of the
heart muscle wall, which
decreases the heart’s ability to
pump blood.
▫ Usually inherited, but can also
occur in old age.
Blood Vessels
• Blood is carried from the heart
to the rest of the body through
a series of blood vessels.
▫ Arteries carry blood away
from the heart.
▫ Veins carry blood towards the
heart.
▫ Capillaries move blood from
arteries to veins, and allow the
diffusion of oxygen and carbon
dioxide.
• Arteries have a smaller lumen, but a thicker wall of smooth muscle
and elastic fibers.
▫ This allows arteries to increase or decrease blood pressure in specific
areas of the body when needed.
• Veins have a larger lumen, with a thin layer of muscle and elastic
fibers.
▫ Very little pressure remains from the heart, so thick walls aren’t
needed.
▫ A wide lumen reduces resistance to blood flow.
• Valves are in place only
in veins to prevent
backflow as blood flows
upwards.
• The contraction of
skeletal muscles also
helps to push blood
upwards.
• Capillaries have the smallest lumen, often just large enough for
blood cells to move through single file.
▫ Wall is made of a single layer of simple squamous cells to allow for
rapid diffusion.
Systemic Circulation
• Each time an artery or
vein forms smaller
branches, it is given a
new name.
 Common Carotid Artery

Brachiocephalic Artery Subclavian Artery

Renal Artery
Abdominal Aorta

Common Iliac Artery

Internal Iliac Artery External Iliac Artery

Femoral Artery
 Internal Jugular Vein

External Jugular Vein Subclavian Vein

Brachiocephalic Vein
Superior Vena Cava

Inferior Vena Cava

Renal Vein

Common Iliac Vein

Internal Iliac Vein External Iliac Vein

Femoral Vein
Blood Pressure
• Blood pressure is a
measurement of the pressure
inside of the large arteries of
systemic circulation.
▫ Systolic pressure is peak
pressure caused by the contraction
of the ventricles in the heart.
▫ Diastolic pressure is low
pressure caused by the refilling of
the ventricles in the heart.
• The normal blood pressure
range is 120-140 / 80-90.
• Atherosclerosis a buildup of lipids, calcium, or cell debris that
gradually restricts blood flow.
▫ This causes higher blood pressure in that area of circulation.
• If a blockage occurs in a coronary artery, this causes a heart attack.
• An aneurysm is a
weakening of the wall of a
blood vessel, causing it to
bulge outwards. This can
lead to:
▫ The vessel bursting
▫ Formation of a thrombus
• Aneurysms are more likely
to form when a patient has:
▫ High blood pressure
▫ Atherosclerosis
▫ A history of smoking
Dr. Guenther holding an aorta
with severe aneurysms next to a
normal one.
Hemostasis
• Hemostasis is the stoppage of
bleeding from a break in a blood
vessel.
• Stage 1: Platelets begin attaching to
the wall of the broken blood vessel,
forming a platelet plug.
• Stage 2: The platelets activate a
plasma protein called thrombin,
which in turn activates protein strands
called fibrin, which stick to the plug.
• Stage 3: The fibrin proteins cause red
blood cells to stick to the clot, sealing
the blood vessel until it heals.
• The effects of blood loss vary
depending on the amount:

▫ Less than 15 percent: Few if

any effects.

▫ 15-30% - Nausea, cold

extremities, increased heart
rate.

▫ Greater than 30% -

Blood donation takes 1 pint, or about 10% of an
Hemorrhagic shock, adult’s blood supply.
unconsciousness.
Blood Clotting Disorders
• Hemophilia is a
hereditary
disorder that
impairs the body’s
ability to control
blood clotting.
▫ The platelet plug
still forms, but
fibin does not.
• A thrombus is a blood
clot in a vessel that is not
broken.
• An embolus is a
thrombus that
breaks away, floats
in the bloodstream,
and clogs a vessel
farther away
(e.g. the brain).
• A hematoma is a swelling
of clotted blood within a
tissue.
▫ The different colors of the
bruise are the result of
hemoglobin being gradually
broken down and
reabsorbed.
Fetal Circulation
• In a fetus, the lungs are
nonfunctional and are bypassed by a
hole called the foramen ovale.
▫ Blood passes directly from the right
atrium to the left atrium.
• The foramen ovale closes at birth.
Fetal Circulation
• The umbilical cord contains
three major blood vessels:
▫ The umbilical vein transports
oxygenated blood from the
mother to the placenta.
▫ The two umbilical arteries
transport deoxygenated blood
from the placenta back to the
mother.
• Fetal hemoglobin has a greater
affinity for oxygen than
maternal hemoglobin.