Solid Waste Management

Solid Waste
• It refers to a waste which is solid or semi solid or which has insufficient
moisture content to be free flowing.
• Human activities generate waste materials that are often discarded because
they are considered
• The main characteristics of solid waste is that it remains visible in the
environment.
• Solid wastes are stored and transported through societies and are major threat
to adversely affect the environment.
 useless
 Syllabus
Solid waste management: Sources, Composition and Properties
of Municipal Solid Waste,
Engineering principles;
Generation,
Onsite handling,
Storage and processing including segregation;
Collection,
Recycling,
Transfer and transport,
Waste processing,
Recovery of resources,
 Waste processing technologies
Biological, chemical and thermal technologies
Composting, Anaerobic digestion, Incineration and pyrolysis,
 Syllabus
Disposal of solid waste including sanitary landfill,
planning, siting, design, closure and post-closure monitoring;
Regional/Integrated solid waste management related issues.
Principles of E-waste Management.
Biomedical waste: Regulatory framework, categorization;
generation, collection, transport, treatment and disposal.
Hazardous Waste Fundamentals,
Definition,
Classification,
Generation,
Regulatory process,
Current Management Practices,
Treatment and Disposal Methods, Physicochemical processes,
Biological processes, Stabilization and solidification; Thermal
methods;� Land disposal, Remediation of Contaminated Sites.
 Books
Tchobanoglous G., Theisen H., and Vigil S.A., Integrated
Solid Waste Management: Principles and Management
Issues, McGraw Hill Book Company, 1993.
Peavy H. S., Rowe D. R. and Tchobanoglous G.,
Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill International
Edition.
LaGrega, M.D., Buckingham P.L., and Evans J.C.,
Hazardous Waste Management, McGraw-Hill International
Editions
Sources of Solid Wastes
 Residential Waste: This refers to wastes from dwellings, apartments,
etc., and consists of leftover food, vegetable peels, plastic, clothes,
ashes, paper, crockery and ashes from fires, furniture.
 Commercial Waste: Similar to residential wastes refers to wastes
consisting of leftover food, glasses, metals, ashes, etc., generated
from stores, restaurants, markets, hotels, motels, auto-repair shops,
medical facilities.
 Institutional Waste: This mainly consists of paper, plastic, glasses,
etc., generated from educational, administrative and public buildings
such as schools, colleges, offices, prisons and other wastes which are
institution specific (hospital, research institute etc.)
 Industrial Waste: This mainly consists of process wastes, ashes,
hazardous wastes, etc., due to industrial activities
 Construction and Demolition Waste: These are wastes generated as a
result of construction, refurbishment, repair and demolition of houses,
commercial buildings and other structures. They consist mainly of earth,
stones, concrete, bricks, lumber, roofing and plumbing materials, heating
systems and electrical wires and parts of the general municipal waste
stream.
 Agricultural Waste : Waste arising from agricultural practice. This mainly
consists of spoiled food grains and vegetables, agricultural remains, litter,
etc., generated from fields, orchards, vineyards, farms, etc.
 Treatment Plant Waste: Solids from grit chambers, sedimentation tank,
sludge digesters of waste water treatment plant.
 Mining Waste: Mainly inert material from mineral extracting industries.
 Energy Production Waste: Waste from energy production units including
ash from coal burning.
 Dredging Waste: Organic and mineral wastes from dredging operations
(excavating material from a water environment).
Waste Sources and Types of Waste
 Different Classifications of solid waste
 Material
 Glass
 Paper etc.
 Physical Properties
 Compostable
 Combustible
 Recyclable
 Sources
 Domestic
 Commercial
 Industrial
 Safety Level
 Hazardous
 Nonhazardous

The classification on the basis of source is widely adopted and is used.

Category of solid waste
 Combustible and non-combustible wastes: Consist of wastes generated
from households, institutions, commercial activities, etc., excluding food
wastes and other highly putrescible material.
 Typically, while combustible material consists of paper, cardboard, textile,
rubber, garden trimmings, etc., non-combustible material consists of such
items as glass, crockery, tin and aluminium cans, ferrous and non-ferrous
material and dirt.
 Biodegradable and non-biodegradable wastes : Biodegradable wastes
mainly refer to substances consisting of organic matter such as leftover food,
vegetable and fruit peels, paper, textile, wood, etc., generated from various
household and industrial activities. Because of the action of micro-
organisms, these wastes are degraded from complex to simpler compounds.
 Non-biodegradable wastes consist of inorganic and recyclable materials such
as plastic, glass, cans, metals, etc.
Category of solid waste
 Hazardous wastes : Hazardous wastes are those defined as wastes of
industrial, institutional or consumer origin that are potentially dangerous either
immediately or over a period of time to human beings and the environment.
 This is due to their physical, chemical and biological or radioactive
characteristics like ignitability, corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity.
 In some cases, the active agents may be liquid or gaseous hazardous wastes.

 These are, nevertheless, classified as solid wastes as they are confined in solid
containers.
 Typical examples of hazardous wastes are empty containers of solvents, paints
and pesticides, which are frequently mixed with municipal wastes and become
part of the urban waste stream.
 Certain hazardous wastes may cause explosions in incinerators and fires at
landfill sites. Others such as pathological wastes from hospitals and radioactive
wastes also require special handling.
Other category of solid waste
 Garbage: Animal and Vegetable waste resulting from handling, sale, storage,
cooking and serving food. Consists of putrescible (rotting) organic matter,
which produces obnoxious odor.
 Ashes and Residues: substances remaining from the burning of wood, coal,
charcoal, coke and other combustible materials for cooking and heating in
houses, institutions and small industrial establishments
 Dead animals: animals are those that die naturally or are accidentally killed on
the road
 Bulky Waste: include large household appliances such as refrigerators,
washing machines, furniture, crates, vehicle parts, tyres, wood, trees and
branches
 Street Waste: collected from streets, walkways, alleys, parks and vacant plots,
and include paper, cardboard, plastics, dirt, leaves and other vegetable matter
 Abandoned Vehicles: includes automobiles, trucks and trailers that are
abandoned on streets and other public places
Municipal Solid Wastes
What is Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) ?
• The MSW refers to all wastes collected by local authority or
municipality and is the most diverse category of waste.
• MSW comprises all wastes except agricultural, mining,
energy production and dredging wastes

EXISTING WASTE GENERATION

Municipal Solid Waste in Indian cities : 6 million tons in 1947
48 million tons in 1997 90 million tons in 2009 expected to 300
million tons by 2047 (Teddy, 2010; Sharholy et al., 2006)
- Municipal Liquid Waste : 5000 million cubic m/yr
Reason of generation of MSW
 Indiscriminate disposal of municipal solid waste is accelerating
and is linked to
poverty,
poor governance,
urbanization,
population growth,
poor standards of living,
low level of environmental awareness
inadequate management of environmental knowledge.
 Rapid industrialization and population explosion in India has led
to the migration of people from villages to cities, which generate
thousands of tons of MSW daily.
 Poor collection and inadequate transportation are responsible for
the accumulation of MSW at every nook and corner
 Municipal solid waste
Components of MSW :
 Municipal solid waste generally includes degradable (paper, textiles, food
waste, straw and yard waste),
 partially degradable (wood, disposable napkins and sludge)
 non-degradable materials (leather, plastics, rubbers, metals, glass, ash from
fuel burning like coal, briquettes or woods, dust and electronic waste)
 Mixed household waste
 Recyclables
 Household hazardous waste
 Commercial waste
 Yard waste
 Litter and waste from community trash cans
 Bulky items (refrigerators , rugs , etc. )
 Construction and demolition waste
Factors affecting the quantity and characteristics of MSW
 Average income level
 Sources
 Population
 Social behaviour
 Climate
 Industrial production
 Market for waste materials
Characteristics of Solid Waste
Solid waste generated by a society may be inert, biologically active or
chemically active.
Agricultural waste is primarily biologically active. It is generated in large
quantities and remains uniformly dispersed on land surface area.
Industrial wastes are generated in industrial area and are highly industry
specific. They usually comprise of chemicals and allied products, rubber,
plastic, metals, petroleum and coal products etc.
Mining waste is primarily inert and is also generated in large volumes.
However it accumulates continuously at mining sites.
MSW is generated at densely populated urban centers and are most
heterogeneous.
• The predominant constituents of MSW are paper, food, wastes,
plastics, glass, metals and inert material.
• In developing country like india, 40% waste is compostable, 40%
inert material where as in developed countries, paper forms a major
part of MSW followed by compostable matter.
• The inert material content is low.
Waste Quantities
Quantity of solid waste generated (million tons per year) (1991)
Country Agricult Mining C&D Sewage Energy Industry MSW
ural sludge Production
UK 260 240 35 27 13 62 110
USA - 1400 31.5 8.4 63 430 133
INDIA - 700-900 7.2 - 60 - 24

Quantities of MSW generated in

different countries
Country Kg/person/day
India 0.25 to0.33
Srilanka 0.40
Singapore 0.85
UK 0.95 to 1.0
Japan 1.12
USA 1.25 to 2.25

Source: Gupta et al., 2015

 Indian Scenario
 As per report (May 2000) of Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD),
Government of India that 1,00,000 MT of Municipal Solid Waste was
generated daily in the country.
 During the year 2004-05, Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
through NEERI, Nagpur conducted survey in 59 cities (35 Metro cities
and 24 State Capitals) and estimated 39,031 Tons per day MSW
generation in these 59 cities/towns.
 The survey conducted by the central institute of Plastics Engineering and
technology (CIPET) at the instance of CPCB has reported generation of
50,592 tonnes of MSW per day in the year 2010-11 in same 59 cities.
 As per information received from State Pollution Control Boards/
Pollution Control Committees (in between the year 2009-12), 1,27,486
TPD (Tons per day) municipal solid waste is generated in the Country
during 2011-12. Out of which, 89,334 TPD (70%) of MSW is collected
and 15,881 TPD (12.45%) is processed or treated.
Source: Gupta et al., 2015
Source: Gupta et al., 2015
Major Constituents of MSW Generated in UK, USA and India(Million Tons/year)

Constituent UK(1992) USA(1990) India(1990)

Paper 35 40 5
Plastic 11 8 1
Metals 8 8.5 1
Glass 9 7 0.5
Inert Material - - 39
Compostable Matter 19 25 37.5
Others 18 11.5 16

Municipal, Energy and Mine Waste Generation in India (Million Tons/year)

Year MSW Energy Waste (ash) Mine waste

1980 - - 430
1990 24 46 830
2000 39 92 1220
2010 56 113 -

Source: Gupta et al., 2015

Source: Gupta et al., 2015
Management of Solid waste
Fundamental objectives of solid waste management.
 To minimize the waste.

 To manage the waste still produced.

• Solid waste management (SWM) is associated with the control of

waste generation, its storage, collection, transfer and transport,
processing and disposal in a manner that is in accordance with the
best principles of
• public health,
• Economics
• Engineering
• Conservation
• Aesthetics
• public attitude
• other environmental considerations
 Various Activities Associated with Solid Waste
• Waste Generation
• Waste Handling and Storage
• Collection
• Processing/Separation at a Central Facility
• Recycling/Recovery
• Transportation and final disposal on land
Hierarchy of an integrated solid waste management for all
types of waste generated:
• Waste Reduction at Source
• Resource Recovery Through Separation and Recycling
• Resource Recovery Through Waste Processing
• Waste Transformation
• Waste Disposal on Land
Interrelationship of functional elements of
solid waste management
Waste Generation

Storage

Collection

Disposal

Transfer and Transport

Processing, recovery and recycling

Objective of SWM processes
Protection of Environmental Health
Promotion of environmental quality.
Supporting the efficiency and productivity of the
economy.
Generation of employment and income
Environmentally sound solid waste management
(ESSWM)
 Fundamental Principles of ESSWM
To ensure sustainable development of the ecosystem and human
environment.
To minimise the impact of human activities on the environment.
To minimise the impact on the environment and maximise the
ecosystem’s carrying capacity.
To ensure the implementation of ESSWM through environmentally
sound technologies.
 Environmentally sound technologies (EST)
 EST refers to cost effective and energy efficient technologies,
which generally perform better on the environment, as they do not
pollute the ecosystem’s vital components such as air, land or water
and consider the reuse, recycling or recovery of wastes.
 Classification
Hard EST: This includes equipment, machines and other
infrastructure with their material accessories to handle waste products
and monitor/measure the quality of air, water and soil.
Soft EST: This supports and complements hard technologies and
include nature-based technologies and management tools. Nature-
based technologies include processes and mechanisms nature uses
within a specific ecosystem (such as vermin composting) and its
carrying capacity, while management tools include system and
procedures, policy and regulatory frameworks, and environmental
performance standards and guidelines.
Factors affecting SWM processes
Quantities and characteristics of wastes
Economic Status
Degree of Industrialisation
Social Development
Quality of life of the location
Physical Characteristics and Regional variation
Climate and Seasonal variation
Cultural Constraints
Management and technical resources
Indicators of EST
Affordability: This means low investment,
reasonableness, maintenance-free and durability.
Validity: This refers to effectiveness, easy operation and
maintenance.
Sustainability: This means low impact, energy saving and
cultural acceptability.
Key issues relating to management of MSW in the
country
 There is no comprehensive short and long term plan with municipal

authorities to handle MSW in accordance with the MSW Rules, 2000.

 Majority of the municipal authorities do not have preparedness to set up

waste processing and disposal facilities.

 Waste management is being looked either for making wealth or

generate revenue; or otherwise is allowed to putrify in cities/ towns.

 Cities and towns, in future, will not get wastelands for further dumping

of wastes. In fact, there will be a need to go for ‘total’ recycling and re-
use of waste and aim for negligible or ‘Zero Waste’ for landfilling.
Implementation of IWM for management of residential solid wastes
Properties of Solid waste
Required for evaluating alternative equipment needs
Required for evaluating systems, management
programmes and plans
Possibility of resource and energy recovery
To finalise disposal methods

Physical Composition
Chemical Composition
Physical Composition
Each individual component
Analysis of particle size
A particle size distribution curve can be plotted
Particle size is important for mechanical recovery of
materials
Moisture content (%)
= (a-b)*100/a, a = initial mass of sample, b = mass of
sample after drying
Density of waste
Vary with geographical location, season of the year,
length of time of storage
Chemical Composition
Proximity Analysis
Moisture (loss at 105oC for 1 h)
Volatile Matter (Additional loss at ignition 950 oC)
Ash (residue after burning)
Fixed Carbon
Fusing point of ash
Ultimate analysis (percent carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, )
Heating value (Energy Value)
WASTE STREAM ASSESSMENT (WSA)
WSA is to determine the basic aspects of quantity (i.e., the amount
of waste generated in the community, both in terms of weight and
volume), composition (i.e., the different components of waste
stream) and sources of wastes.
The information relating to these basic aspects of wastes is vital for
making decisions about the SWM system, finance and regulations.
Put differently, an assessment of waste stream is essential in the
analyses of short- and long-term problems within the local waste
management system.
It also helps in targeting waste management activities and setting
goals for different elements of a waste management plan.
Waste stream assessment, however, is not a one-time activity. It is a
continuous and dynamic process, because the characteristics of
wastes differ depending on the regions, communities, seasons, etc.
Rationale for analysis
Analysis of waste composition, characteristics and quantity
It provides the basic data for the planning, designing and
operation of the management systems.
An ongoing analysis of the data helps detect changes in
composition, characteristics and quantities of wastes, and the
rates at which these changes take place, which facilitates
effective implementation of management systems.
It quantifies the amount and type of materials suitable for
processing, recovery and recycling.
It provides information that helps in deciding appropriate
technologies and equipment.
The forecast trends assist designers and manufacturers in the
production of collection vehicles and equipment suitable for
future needs.
Field investigation
 Waste sorting: Sorting of wastes into predetermined components
takes place at disposal sites for weighing and sampling in order to
determine the percentage of each component and the physical and
chemical characteristics of wastes.
 Vehicle weighing: Vehicles are weighed when they enter the
disposal sites loaded, and exit the sites empty. The vehicle’s front
wheels are weighed first, followed by the rear wheels and the sum
of the two gives the total weight.
 Field visits: This means visiting institutional and industrial sites to
identify wastes being generated and disposal methods.
Physical characteristics
 Density: Density of waste, i.e., its mass per unit volume (kg/m3), is a
critical factor in the design of a SWM system, e.g., the design of sanitary
landfills, storage, types of collection and transport vehicles, etc.
 Any normal compaction equipment can achieve reduction in volume of
wastes by 75%, which increases an initial density of 100 kg/m3 to 400
kg/m3. In other words, a waste collection vehicle can haul four times the
weight of waste in its compacted state than when it is uncompacted.
 Significant changes in density occur spontaneously as the waste moves
from source to disposal, due to scavenging, handling, wetting and drying
by the weather, vibration in the collection vehicle and decomposition.
the effect of increasing the moisture content of the waste is detrimental in the
sense that dry density decreases at higher moisture levels;
soil-cover plays an important role in containing the waste;
there is an upper limit to the density, and the conservative estimate of in-place
density for waste in a sanitary landfill is about 600 kg/m3.
Physical characteristics
 Moisture content: Moisture content is defined as the ratio of the
weight of water (wet weight - dry weight) to the total weight of the
wet waste. Moisture increases the weight of solid wastes, and
thereby, the cost of collection and transport.
 In addition, moisture content is a critical determinant in the
economic feasibility of waste treatment by incineration, because
wet waste consumes energy for evaporation of water and in raising
the temperature of water vapour.

 Size: Measurement of size distribution of particles in waste stream

is important because of its significance in the design of mechanical
separators and shredders.
Physical Properties
 Field capacity: The field capacity of MSW is the total amount of moisture
which can be retained in a waste sample subject to gravitational pull.
 It is a critical measure because water in excess of field capacity will form
leachate, and leachate can be a major problem in landfills.
 Field capacity varies with the degree of applied pressure and the state of
decomposition of the wastes.
 Permeability of compacted wastes: The hydraulic conductivity of compacted
wastes is an important physical property because it governs the movement of
liquids and gases in a landfill.
 Permeability depends on the other properties of the solid material include pore
size distribution, surface area and porosity.
 Porosity: It represents the amount of voids per unit overall volume of material. The
porosity of MSW varies typically from 0.40 to 0.67 depending on the compaction and
composition of the waste.
 Compressibility of MSW: Degree of physical changes of the suspended solids
or filter cake when subjected to pressure.
Chemical characteristics
 Energy Content:
Factors affecting waste generation rate
Source reduction and recycling
Public attitude and legislation
Effect of geographic and physical factors
Location
Season
Frequency of collection
Characteristics of Service Area
Quantity of Material Recovered
Waste handling and Storage
Methods of Estimate: Waste measured as kg/capita/day
Load count analysis: Individual loads and corresponding waste
characteristics over a period of time estimated
Weight Volume analysis: Weighting and Measuring Weight Loads
Material balance analysis:
Rate of accumulation of material within the system boundary
= Rate of flow of material into the system boundary
– rate of flow of material out of the system boundary
+ rate of generation of waste material within the system boundary
Generally, Generated Waste – Collected Waste = 4 to 15 %
Due to: Composting
Burned
Discharged to Sewer
Sold and Recycled
Handling and Separation
Handling is the activity till the waste placed in container
Source Equipment for collection of waste
Residential Large Wheeled containers/ Gavity chutes
Commercial Pneumatic conveyers
Industrial Collection Cart, Trains, Service Elevators
Storage Containers
Stationary containers: These are used for contents to be
transferred to collection vehicles at the site of storage.

Hauled containers: These are used for contents to be

directly transferred to a processing plant, transfer station or
disposal site for emptying before being returned to the
storage site.
Storage Containers Characteristics
 Low cost, size, weight, shape, resistance to corrosion, water tightness,
strength and durability
 Should not have rough or sharp edges, and preferably have a handle
and a wheel to facilitate mobility.
 Should be covered to prevent rainwater from entering (which increases
the weight and rate of decomposition of organic materials) into the
solid wastes.
 Body must be strong enough to resist and discourage stray animals and
scavengers from ripping it as well as withstand rough handling by the
collection crew and mechanical loading equipment.
 Containers should be provided with a lifting bar, compatible with the
hoisting mechanism of the vehicle.
 The material used should be light, recyclable, easily moulded and the
surface must be smooth and resistant to corrosion.
Storage of Solid Waste
Factors affect onsite storage
Effects of Storage on waste components
 Biological decomposition
 Absorption of fluid
 Contamination of waste component
Type of container to be used
Container location
 Residential
 Commercial
Public health and aesthetic
Why onsite waste processing required:
 To reduce volume
 Recover usable material
 Alter physical form of solid waste
Collection of Solid Waste
For low rise buildings by
Curb (Dustbins emptied on collection day)
Alley (Common Dustbins)
Setout/Set aback (Dustbins carried from home and returned to
them after emptied)
High rise buildings
 Self loading of collection vehicles
Collection Frequency
The frequency of collection will depend on:
the quantity of solid waste,
Time of year
socioeconomic status of the area served
municipal or contractor responsibility.
In residential areas:
twice-a-week solid waste collection during warm months of the year
once a week at other times should be the maximum permissible interval
In business districts, solid waste, including garbage from hotels and
restaurants, should be collected daily
collection of household hazardous wastes, should be in every three
months.
Factors that affect the selection of a transfer
station
Limitations in hauling solid wastes
additional capital costs of purchasing trailers,
building transfer stations and the extra time,
labour and energy required for transferring wastes from collection
truck to transfer trailer
Types of waste received
Processes required in recovering material from wastes.
Required capacity and amount of waste storage desired.
Types of collection vehicles using the facility.
Types of transfer vehicles that can be accommodated at the
disposal facilities.
Site topography and access
Types of transfer station
 Small to medium transfer stations: These are direct-discharge stations that
provide no intermediate waste storage area. The capacities are generally small
(less than 100 tonnes/day) and medium (100 to 500 tonnes/day). Depending on
weather, site aesthetics and environmental concerns, transfer operations of this
size may be located either indoor or outdoor.
 Large transfer stations: These are designed for heavy commercial use by
private and municipal collection vehicles.
Types of large transfer stations
 Direct-discharge non-compaction station:
 In these stations, waste is dumped directly from collection vehicle into waiting
transfer trailers and is generally designed with two main operating floors
 Wastes are dumped directly from collection vehicles (on the top floor) through
a hopper and into open top trailers on the lower floor.
 Platform/pit non-compaction station:
 In this arrangement, the collection vehicles dump their wastes onto a platform
or into a pit using waste handling equipment, where wastes can be temporarily
stored, and if desired, picked through for recyclables or unacceptable
materials.
 The waste is then pushed into open-top trailers, usually by front-end loaders.
 Platform/pit compaction station:
 In this arrangement, the collection vehicles dump their wastes onto a platform
or into a pit using waste handling equipment, where wastes can be temporarily
stored, and if desired, picked through for recyclables or unacceptable
materials.
 The waste is then pushed into open-top trailers, usually by front-end loaders.
Capacity of transfer stations
 A transfer station should have enough capacity to manage and handle the
wastes at the facility throughout its operating life.
 While selecting the design capacity of a transfer station, we must, therefore,
consider trade-offs between the capital costs associated with the station and
equipment and the operational costs.
 Factors that should be considered in determining the appropriate capacity of a
transfer facility include:
 capacity of collection vehicles using the facility;
 desired number of days of storage space on tipping floor;
 time required to unload collection vehicles;
 number of vehicles that will use the station and their expected days and hours of
arrival;
 waste sorting or processing to be accomplished at the facility;
 transfer trailer capacity;
 hours of station operation;
 availability of transfer trailers waiting for loading;
 time required, if necessary, to attach and disconnect trailers from tractors or
compactors.
Capacity of transfer stations
Capacity of transfer stations
Capacity of transfer stations

(EPA, 1995)
Capacity of transfer stations
 A transfer station should have enough capacity to manage and handle the
wastes at the facility throughout its operating life.
 While selecting the design capacity of a transfer station, we must, therefore,
consider trade-offs between the capital costs associated with the station and
equipment and the operational costs.
 Factors that should be considered in determining the appropriate capacity of a
transfer facility include:
 capacity of collection vehicles using the facility;
 desired number of days of storage space on tipping floor;
 time required to unload collection vehicles;
 number of vehicles that will use the station and their expected days and hours of
arrival;
 waste sorting or processing to be accomplished at the facility;
 transfer trailer capacity;
 hours of station operation;
 availability of transfer trailers waiting for loading;
 time required, if necessary, to attach and disconnect trailers from tractors or
compactors.
Viability of transfer stations
 Transfer stations offer benefits such as lower collection costs (because crews
waste less time travelling to the site),
 reduced fuel and maintenance costs for collection vehicles,
 increased flexibility in selection of disposal facilities,
 opportunity to recover recyclables or compostables at the transfer site and
 the opportunity to shred or scoop wastes prior to disposal.
 The cost-effectiveness of a transfer station depends on the distance of disposal
site from the generation area, and a distance of 10 – 15 km is usually the
minimum cost-effective distance
 The distance between the disposal site and collection area is one of the
principal variables in deciding whether to use a transfer station or haul the
solid wastes directly from the collection area to the disposal site.
Cost Analysis to Determine Viability of transfer
stations
Resource Recovery Through
Separation and Recycling
Recycling involves
Separation of waste materials
Preparation of separated fractions for
reuse
Reprocessing and remanufacturing
Reuse of prepared material
Materials in MSW which can be separated and
recycled
• Paper
• Glass
• Plastic
• Ferrous metals
• Aluminium cans

Recycling is a good process as it reduces the

volume of waste to be disposed off on land.
Resource Recovery Through Waste Processing
Waste processing involves the physical, chemical or
biological alterations of wastes to recover products for reuse.
The various techniques used for this are
Biological Treatment
Composting
Anaerobic digestion/ Biogasification
• Thermal Treatment
• Incineration
• Refuse Derived Fuel Burning
• Physical Treatment
• Making building blocks/bricks from inert
waste
• Chemical Treatment
• To recover compounds such as glucose,
synthetic oil and cellulose acetate etc.
Waste Transformation
After recovery of various resources from
a waste, the residual material may be
subjected to a variety of processes to
reduce the volume of waste requiring
disposal. Treatment process may involve
Shredding
Size separation (screening)
Volume Reduction by thermal treatment
or compaction
Encapsulation (to reduce toxicity)

These processes help in reducing

the final land areas required for
waste disposal
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 Health and Environmental Effects
Public health Effect
Disease vectors and Pathways
Flies
Mosquitoes
Roaches
Rodents
Occupational Hazard
Animals
Environmental Effect
Air Pollution
Water and Land Pollution
Visual Pollution
Noise Pollution
Odour Pollution
Explosion Hazard
 Size reduction

Hammer Mills: used for brittle material

Tub Grinder: used for yard waste Shear Shredder: rotating blades
 Size Separation

Vibrating Screens

Trommel/Rotary Screens

Disc Screens
 Density Separators

Air Classifier: Straight/Zigzag/Stacked

Floatation: separate heavy and Stonner: Remove heavy

light organics materials by vibration
Magnetic and Electromagnetic separators for removal of ferrous materials
Densifiers/Compactors: Stationery/Rotary/Extruders
PURPOSE OF PROCESSING
 The processing of wastes helps in achieving the best possible benefit from every
functional element of the solid waste management (SWM) system and, therefore,
requires proper selection of techniques and equipment for every element.
 Improving efficiency of SWM system: Various processing techniques are available to
improve the efficiency of SWM system.
 For example, before waste papers are reused, they are usually baled to reduce
transporting and storage volume requirements.
 Recovering material for reuse: Usually, materials having a market, when present in
wastes in sufficient quantity to justify their separation, are most amenable to recovery
and recycling.
 Materials that can be recovered from solid wastes include paper, cardboard, plastic,
glass, ferrous metal, aluminium and other residual metals.
 Recovering conversion products and energy: Combustible organic materials can be
converted to intermediate products and ultimately to usable energy.
 This can be done either through incineration, pyrolysis, composting or bio-digestion.
MECHANICAL VOLUME AND SIZE REDUCTION
 The main purpose is to reduce the volume (amount) and size of waste, as
compared to its original form, and produce waste of uniform size.
 Volume reduction or compaction refers to densifying wastes in order to reduce their
volume. Some of the benefits of compaction include:
 reduction in the quantity of materials to be handled at the disposal site;
 improved efficiency of collection and disposal of wastes;
 increased life of landfills;
 Economically viable waste management system.
 However, note the following disadvantages associated with compaction:
 poor quality of recyclable materials sorted out of compaction vehicle;
 difficulty in segregation or sorting (since the various recyclable materials are mixed and
compressed in lumps);
 Bio-degradable materials (e.g., leftover food, fruits and vegetables) destroy the value of paper and
plastic material.
Equipment used for compaction
 Stationary equipment: This represents the equipment in which wastes are brought
to, and loaded into, either manually or mechanically. In fact, the compaction
mechanism used to compress waste in a collection vehicle, is a stationary
compactor.
 Movable equipment: This represents the wheeled and tracked equipment used to place and
compact solid wastes, as in a sanitary landfill.
 Low-pressure (less than 7kg/cm2) compaction: This includes those used at apartments and
commercial establishments, bailing equipment used for waste papers and cardboards and
stationary compactors used at transfer stations.
 High-pressure (more than 7kg/cm2) compaction: Compact systems with a capacity up to
351.5 kg/cm2 or 5000 lb/in2 come under this category. In such systems, specialised
compaction equipment are used to compress solid wastes into blocks or bales of various
sizes.
Selection of Compaction Equipment
 Characteristics such as size, composition, moisture content, and bulk density of
the waste to be compacted.
 Method of transferring and feeding wastes to the compactor, and handling.
 Potential uses of compacted waste materials.
 Design characteristics such as the size of loading chamber, compaction pressure,
compaction ratio, etc.
 Operational characteristics such as energy requirements, routine and specialised
maintenance requirement, simplicity of operation, reliability, noise output, and
air and water pollution control requirement.
 Site consideration, including space and height, access, noise and related
environmental limitations.
Source: Tchonaglous et al., 1995
Size Reduction/Shredding
 This is required to convert large sized wastes (as they are collected) into smaller
pieces. Size reduction helps in obtaining the final product in a reasonably
uniform and considerably reduced size in comparison to the original form.
 In the overall process of waste treatment and disposal, size reduction is implemented
ahead of:
 land filling to provide a more homogeneous product. This may require less cover material and less
frequent covering than that without shredding. This can be of economic importance, where cover
material is scarce or needs to be brought to the landfill site from some distance.
 recovering materials from the waste stream for recycling.
 baling the wastes – a process sometimes used ahead of long distance transport of solid wastes – to
achieve a greater density.
 making the waste a better fuel for incineration waste energy recovery facilities. (The size reduction
techniques, coupled with separation techniques such as screening, result in a more homogeneous
mixture of relatively uniform size, moisture content and heating value, and thereby improving the
steps of incineration and energy recovery.
 reducing moisture, i.e., drying and dewatering of wastes (see for a discussion on drying and
dewatering).
Selection of Size reduction Equipment
 The factors that decide the selection of size reduction equipment include the
following:
 The properties of materials before and after shredding.
 Size requirements for shredded material by component.
 Method of feeding shredders, provision of adequate shredder hood capacity (to avoid
bridging) and clearance requirement between feed and transfer conveyors and
shredders.
 Types of operation (continuous or intermittent).
 Operational characteristics including energy requirements, routine and specialised
maintenance requirement, simplicity of operation, reliability, noise output, and air and
water pollution control requirements.
 Site considerations, including space and height, access, noise and environmental
limitations.
 Metal storage after size reduction for the next operation.
Component Separation
 Component separation is a necessary operation in which the waste components
are identified and sorted either manually or mechanically to aid further
processing.
 recovery of valuable materials for recycling;
 preparation of solid wastes by removing certain components prior to incineration,
energy recovery, composting and biogas production
 Air separation
 Air separation is primarily used to separate lighter materials (usually organic)
from heavier (usually inorganic) ones.
 The lighter material may include plastics, paper and paper products and other
organic materials.
 Generally, there is also a need to separate the light fraction of organic material
from the conveying air streams, which is usually done in a cyclone separator.
 In this technique, the heavy fraction is removed from the air classifier (i.e.,
equipment used for air separation) to the recycling stage or to land disposal, as
appropriate.
Air separation
 Conventional chute type
 In this type, when the processed
solid wastes are dropped into the
vertical chute, the lighter material
is carried by the airflow to the top
while the heavier materials fall to
the bottom of the chute.
 The control of the percentage split
between the light and heavy
fraction is accomplished by
 varying the waste loading rate,
 airflow rate and
 the cross section of chute.
Air separation
 Zigzag air classifier
 Shredded wastes are introduced at
the top of the column at a
controlled rate, and air is
introduced at the bottom of the
column.
 As the wastes drop into the air
stream, the lighter fraction is
fluidised and moves upward and
out of column, while the heavy
fraction falls to the bottom.
Air separation
 Open inlet vibrator type
 In this type of air classifier, the separation is
accomplished by a combination of the following
actions:
 Vibration: This helps to stratify the material fed to
the separator into heavy and light components. Due
to this agitation, the heavier particles tend to settle
at the bottom as the shredded waste is conveyed
down the length of the separator.
 Inertial force: In this action, the air pulled in
through the feed inlet imparts an initial acceleration
to the lighter particle, while the wastes travel down
the separator as they are being agitated.
 Air pressure: This action refers to the injection of
fluidising air in two or more high velocity and low
mass flow curtains across the bed. A final stripping
of light particles is accomplished at the point where
the heavy fraction discharges from the elutriators. It
has been reported that the resulting separation is
less sensitive to particle size than a conventional
vertical air classifier, be it of straight or zigzag
design.
Selection of air separation equipment
 The factors that are to be considered for selecting air separation equipment
include the following:
 Characteristics of the material produced by shredding equipment including
particle size, shape, moisture content and fibre content.
 Material specification for light fraction.
 Methods of transferring wastes from the shredders to the air separation units
and feeding wastes into the air separator.
 Characteristics of separator design including solids-to-air ratio, fluidising
velocities, unit capacity, total airflow and pressure drop.
 Operational characteristics including energy requirement, maintenance
requirement, simplicity of operation, proved performance and reliability, noise
output, and air and water pollution control requirements.
 Site considerations including space and height access, noise and
environmental limitations.
Screening
 Screening is the most common form of separating solid wastes, depending on
their size by the use of one or more screening surfaces.
 Screening has a number of applications in solid waste resource and energy
recovery systems.
 Screens can be used before or after shredding and after air separation of wastes in
various applications dealing with both light and heavy fraction materials.
 Rotary Drum Screen
 rotating wire screens with relatively large openings are used for separation of
cardboard and paper products, while vibrating screens and rotating drum screens
are typically used for the removal of glass and related materials from the
shredded solid wastes.
Selection of screening equipment
 The various factors that affect the selection of screens include the
following:
Material specification for screened component.
Location where screening is to be applied and characteristics of waste
material to be screened, including particle size, shape, bulk, density and
moisture content.
Separation and overall efficiency.
Characteristics screen design, including materials of construction, size of
screen openings, total surface screening area, oscillating rate for
vibrating screens, speed for rotary drum screens, loading rates and
length.
Operational characteristics, including energy requirements, maintenance
requirements, simplicity of operation, reliability, noise output and air and
water pollution control requirements.
Site considerations such as space and height access, noise and related
environmental limitations.
Magnetic Separation
 The most common method of recovering ferrous scrap from shredded solid
wastes involves the use of magnetic recovery systems.
 Ferrous materials are usually recovered either after shredding or before air
classification. When wastes are mass-fired in incinerators, the magnetic separator
is used to remove the ferrous material from the incinerator residue.
 Magnetic recovery systems have also been used at landfill disposal sites.
 The specific locations, where ferrous materials are recovered will depend on the
objectives to be achieved, such as reduction of wear and tear on processing and
separation equipment, degree of product purity achieved and the required
recovery efficiency.
Equipment used for Magnetic Separation
 Suspended magnet: In this type of separator, a permanent magnet is used to
attract the ferrous metal from the waste stream. When the attracted metal reaches
the area, where there is no magnetism, it falls away freely. This ferrous metal is
then collected in a container.
 This type of separation device is suitable for processing raw refuse, where
separators can remove large pieces of ferrous metal easily from the waste stream.
Equipment used for Magnetic Separation
 Magnetic pulley: This consists of a drum type device containing permanent
magnets or electromagnets over which a conveyor or a similar transfer
mechanism carries the waste stream. The conveyor belt conforms to the rounded
shape of the magnetic drum and the magnetic force pulls the ferrous material
away from the falling stream of solid waste.
Selection of Magnetic Separation Equipment
 Characteristics of waste from which ferrous materials are to be separated (i.e., the
amount of ferrous material, the tendency of the wastes to stick to each other, size,
moisture content, etc.)
 Equipment used for feeding wastes to separator and removing the separated
waste streams.
 Characteristics of the separator system engineering design, including loading
rate, magnet strength, conveyor speed, material of construction, etc.
 Operational characteristics, including energy requirements, routine and
specialised maintenance requirements, simplicity of operation, reliability, noise
output, and air and water pollution control requirements.
 Locations where ferrous materials are to be recovered from solid wastes.
 Site consideration, including space and height, access, noise and environmental
limitations.
Other Separation Equipment
 Hand-sorting or previewing: Previewing of the waste stream and manual
removal of large sized materials is necessary, prior to most types of separation or
size reduction techniques.
 This is done to prevent damage or stoppage of equipment such as shredders or
screens, due to items such as rugs, pillows, mattresses, large metallic or plastic
objects, wood or other construction materials, paint cans, etc
Other Separation Equipment
 Inertial separation: Inertial methods rely on ballistic or gravity separation
principles to separate shredded solid wastes into light (i.e., organic) and heavy
(i.e., inorganic) particles.
Other Separation Equipment
 Flotation: In the flotation process, glass-rich feedstock, which is produced by
screening the heavy fraction of the air-classified wastes after ferrous metal
separation, is immersed in water in a soluble tank.
 Glass chips, rocks, bricks, bones and dense plastic materials that sink to the
bottom are removed with belt scrappers for further processing. Light organic and
other materials that float are skimmed from the surface.
 These materials are taken to landfill sites or to incinerators for energy recovery.
Chemical adhesives (flocculants) are also used to improve the capture of light
organic and fine inorganic materials.
Other Separation Equipment
 Optical sorting: Optical sorting is
used mostly to separate glass from the
waste stream, and this can be
accomplished by identification of the
transparent properties of glass to sort
it from opaque materials (e.g., stones,
ceramics, bottle caps, corks, etc.) in
the waste stream.
 Optical sorting involves a compressed
air blast that removes or separates the
glasses – plain or coloured. An optical
sorting machinery is, however,
complex and expensive.
DRYING AND DEWATERING
 Drying and dewatering operations are
used primarily for incineration
systems, with or without energy
recovery systems.
 These are also used for drying of
sludges in wastewater treatment
plants, prior to their incineration or
transport to land disposal.
 The purpose of drying and
dewatering operation is to remove
moisture from wastes and thereby
make it a better fuel.
 Sometimes, the light fraction is
pelletised after drying to make the
fuel easier to transport and store,
prior to use in an incinerator or
energy recovery facility.
Drying
 Convection drying: In this method, hot air is in direct contact with the wet solid
waste stream.
 Conduction drying: In this method, the wet solid waste stream is in contact with
a heated surface.
 Radiation drying: In this method, heat is transmitted directly to the wet solid
waste stream by radiation from the heated body.
 Of these three methods, convection drying is used most commonly.
 Rotary drum dryer is composed of a rotating cylinder, slightly inclined from the
horizontal through which the material to be dried and the drying gas are passed
simultaneously.
 The drying of material in a direct rotary dryer occurs in the following stages:
 Heating the wet material and its moisture content to the constant-rate drying
temperature.
 Drying the material substantially at this temperature.
 Heating of material to its discharge temperature and evaporation of moisture remaining
at the end of the stage.
 The retention time in the rotary drum is about 30 – 45 minutes. The required
energy input will depend on the moisture content, and the required energy input
can be estimated by using a value of about 715 KJ/kg (or 1850 Btu/1b) of water
evaporated.

Countercurrent Direct-Heat Rotary Drum Dryer

Factors affecting selection of Drying equipment
 Properties of material to be dried.
 Drying characteristics of the materials, including moisture content, maximum
material temperature and anticipated drying time.
 Specification of final product, including moisture content.
 Nature of operation, whether continuous or intermittent.
 Operational characteristics, including energy requirements, maintenance
requirements, simplicity of operation, reliability, noise output and air and water
pollution control requirements.
 Site considerations such as space and height access, noise and environmental
limitations.
Dewatering
 Dewatering is more applicable to the problem of sludge disposal from
wastewater treatment of plants, but may also be applicable in some cases to
municipal/industrial waste problems.
 When drying beds, lagoons or spreading on land are not feasible, other
mechanical means of dewatering are used.
 The emphasis in the dewatering operation is often on reducing the liquid volume.
 Once dewatered, the sludge can be mixed with other solid waste, and the
resulting mixture can be:
 incinerated to reduce volume;
 used for the production of recoverable by-products;
 used for production of compost;
 buried in a landfill.
 Centrifugation and filtration are the two common methods for the dewatering of sludge.
 Sludges with solid content of a few percent can be thickened to about 10 – 15% in
centrifugation and about 20 – 30% in pressure filtration or vacuum filtration.
Biological Conversion Processes
Biological principles/factors to be considered
Nutrient Requirement for microbial growth
Type of microbial metabolism based on the need for molecular
oxygen
Type of microbes of importance in conversion of solidwaste
Environmental requirement
Aerobic and anaerobic transformation
Process selection
Biological Conversion Processes
Nutrient requirement
Carbon as source of energy for synthesis of new cell tissue
 Organic Carbon
 Carbon dioxide
Organisms that derive carbon from carbon dioxides are
autotrophs
Organisms that use organic carbon for the formation of cell
tissues are called heterotrophs
 The conversion of carbon dioxide to organic cell tissues is a reductive
process, which requires a net input of energy.
 Autotrophic organisms therefore spent more of their energy for sysnthesis
than heterotrophs, resulting lower growth
Phototrophs
Chemotrophs
Biological Conversion Processes
Nutrient requirement
Carbon as source of energy for synthesis of new cell tissue
Inorganic elements (nutrients) such as
 Nitrogen
 Phosphorus
 Sulfur
 Potassium
 Calcium
 Magnesium
 Iron
 Sodium
 Chlorine
Organic nutrients (growth factor)
 Amino acids
 Purines and pyrimidines
 Vitamines
Biological Conversion Processes
Type of microbial metabolism
Respiratory metabolism
 Aerobic resiration
 Anoxic
Fermentative metabolism
Types of microbes
Eucaryotes
Eubacteria
Achbateria
Environmental Requirements
Temperature
pH
Moisture content
Biological Conversion Processes
 Psychrophilic (-10-30oC)
 Mesophilic, or moderate-temperature phase (20-50 oC)
 Thermophilic (45-75oC)
Aerobic Biological Conversion Processes

In this organic matter in solid waste is represented as CaHbOcNd

The production of new cells and sulfate is not considered
The composition of the resultant material (on molar basis) is CwHxOyNz
Amount of oxygen required for stabilisation of the biodegrable fraction is:
 Pathways of anaerobic digestion

Lipids Polysaccharides Protein Nucleic Acid

Hydrolysis
Fatty Monosaccharides Amino Purines & Simple
acids acids pyradines Aeromatic
s
Acidogenesis

Other fermentation products

(e.g. propionate, butyrate,
succinate, lactate, ethanol)

Methanogenic substrates H2,

CO2, formate, methanol,
Methano methylamine, acetate
-genesis
Methane + carbon dioxide
Stages anaerobic digestion process
Acid Fermentation
Anaerobes and Facultative anaerobes organisms solubilize organic solids
through hydrolysis. The soluble products then fermentated to volatile acids
and organic alcohols of low molecular weight like propionic acid, acetic
acid. CH4, CO2, H2S evolved. pH<6, last for 15 days at 21oC, BOD
increases
Acid Regression
Organic acids formed in 1st stage attached by microbes to for carbonates
and amonia compounds. Offensive odour, pH=6.8, Stage continue for 3
months at 21oC, BOD is high
Alkaline Fermentation
Final stage, more resistant materials like proteins and organic acids are
attacked into simpler substances like ammonia, organic acids and gases.
Liquid separates out from solids. No offensive odour. pH>7-7.5 CH 4, CO2,
H2S evolved, 1 month at 21oC BOD decreases
Composting
 Any organic material that can be biologically decomposed is compostable
 Compost is the end product of the composting process.
 The by-products of this process are carbon dioxide and water. Compost is
peaty humus, dark in colour and has a crumbly texture, an earthy odour, and
resembles rich topsoil.
 Composts will not have any resemblance in the physical form to the
original waste from which it was derived. High-quality compost is devoid
of weed seeds and organisms that may be pathogenic to humans, animals,
or plants.
 Cured compost is also relatively stable and resistant to further
decomposition by microorganisms.
Composting
Windrow Composting
 Windrow Composting
 The windrow system is the least expensive and most common approach.
 Windrows are defined as regularly turned elongated piles, shaped like a
haystack in cross section and up to a hundred meters or more in length.
 The cross-sectional dimensions vary with feedstock and turning equipment,
but most municipal solid waste (MSW) windrows are 1.5 to 3 meters high
and 3 to 6 meters wide
 Windrows composed of MSW are usually required to be located on an
impermeable surface, which greatly improves equipment handling under
inclement weather conditions.
 The optimum size and shape of the windrow depends on particle size,
moisture content, pore space and decomposition rate – all of which affect the
movement of oxygen towards the centre of the pile
 Windrow Composting
 Process control is normally through pile management, although forced
aeration can also be used.
 Turning the pile re-introduces air into the pile and increases porosity so that
efficient passive aeration from atmospheric air continues at all times.
 The windrow dimensions should allow conservation of the heat generated
during the composting process and also allow air to diffuse to the deeper
portions of the pile.
 Windrows must be placed on a firm surface to turn the piles with ease.
 They may be turned as frequently as once per week, but more frequent
turning may be necessary, if high proportions of bio-solids are present in the
feedstock.
 Turning the piles also moves the materials from the pile surface to the core of
the windrow, where they can undergo composting.
 Windrow Composting
 Machines equipped with augers, paddles or tines are used for turning the
piles.
 Some windrow turners can supplement piles with water, if necessary.
 When piles are turned, heat is released as steam to the atmosphere.
 If inner portions of the pile have low levels of oxygen, odours may result
when this portion of the pile is exposed to the atmosphere.
 Piles with initial moisture content within the optimum range have a reduced
potential for producing leachate.
 The addition of moisture from precipitation, however, increases this
potential.
 Any leachate or runoff created must be collected and treated or added to a
batch of incoming feedstock to increase its moisture content.
 To avoid problems with leachate or runoff, piles can be placed under a roof,
but doing so adds to the initial costs of the operation.
Aerated Static Pile Composting
 Aerated Static Pile Composting
 Aerated static pile composting requires the composting mixture (i.e., a
mixture of pre-processed materials and liquids) to be placed in piles that are
mechanically aerated.
 The piles are placed over a network of pipes connected to a blower, which
supplies the air for composting.
 Air can be supplied under positive or negative pressure.
 The air supply blower either forces air into the pile or draws air out of it.
 Forcing the air into the pile generates a positive pressure system, while
drawing air out of the pile creates a negative pressure.
 When the composting process is nearly complete, the piles are broken up for
the first time since their construction.
 The compost is then taken through a series of post-processing steps.
 A timer or a temperature feedback system similar to a home thermostat
controls the blowers.
 Aerated Static Pile Composting
 Air circulation in the compost piles provides the needed oxygen for the
composting microbes and prevents excessive heat build-up in the pile.
 Removing excess heat and water vapour cools the pile to maintain optimum
temperature for microbial activity.
 A controlled air supply enables construction of large piles, which decreases
the need for land.
 Odours from the exhaust air could be substantial, but traps or filters can be
used to control them.
 The temperatures in the inner portion of a pile are usually adequate to
destroy a significant number of the pathogens and weed seeds present.
 The surface of piles, however, may not reach the desired temperatures for
destruction of pathogens because piles are not turned in the aerated static pile
technology.
 This problem can be overcome by placing a layer of finished compost of 15
to 30 cms thick over the compost pile.
 Aerated Static Pile Composting
 The outer layer of finished compost acts as an insulating blanket and helps
maintain the desired temperature for destruction of pathogens and weed
seeds throughout the entire pile.
 Aerated static pile composting systems have been used successfully for
MSW, yard trimmings, bio-solids and industrial composting.
 Aerated static pile composting can also be done under a roof or in the open.
 Producing compost using this technology usually takes about 6 to 12 weeks.
The land requirements for this method are lower than that of windrow
composting.
 In-vessel Composting
 In-vessel composting systems enclose the feedstock in a chamber or vessel
that provides adequate mixing, aeration and moisture.
 Drums, digester bins and tunnels are some of the common in-vessel type
systems.
 In-vessel systems vary in their requirements for pre-processing materials.
 For example, some require minimal pre-processing, while others require
extensive MSW pre-processing.
 These vessels can be single- or multi-compartment units.
 In some cases, the vessel rotates, and in others, it is stationary and a
mixing/agitating mechanism moves the material around.
 In-vessel Composting
 Most in-vessel systems are continuous-feed systems, although some operate
in a batch mode.
 All in-vessel systems require further composting (curing) after the material
has been discharged from the vessel.
 A major advantage of in-vessel systems is that all environmental conditions
can be carefully controlled to allow rapid composting.
 The material to be composted is frequently turned and mixed to homogenise
the compost and promote rapid oxygen transfer.
 Retention times range from less than one week to as long as four weeks.
 These systems, if properly operated, produce minimal odours and little or no
leachate.
 In-vessel systems enable exhaust gases from the vessel to be captured and
are subjected to odour control and treatment.
In-vessel vertical Composting
 Vertical In-vessel Composting
 It is generally over 4 meters high, and can be housed in silos or other large
structures
 Organic material, typically fed into the reactor at the top through a
distribution mechanism, moves by gravity to an unloading mechanism at the
bottom.
 Process control is usually by pressure-induced aeration, where the airflow is
opposite to the downward materials flow.
 The height of these reactors makes process control difficult due to the high
rates of airflow required per unit of distribution surface area.
 Neither temperature nor oxygen can be maintained at optimal levels
throughout the reactors, leading to zones of non-optimal activity.
 As with static pile composting, a stable porous structure is important in
vertical reactors, which usually lack internal mixing.
 Tall vertical reactors have been successfully used in the sludge composting
industry where uniform feedstock and porous amendments can minimise these
difficulties in process control, but are rarely used for heterogeneous materials
like MSW.
In-vessel horizontal Composting
 Horizontal In-vessel Composting
 These avoid high temperature, oxygen and moisture gradients of vertical
reactors by maintaining a short airflow pathway.
 They come in a wide range of configurations, including static and agitated,
pressure and/or vacuum-induced aeration.
 Agitated systems generally use the turning process to move the material
through the system in a continuous mode, while static systems require a
loading and unloading mechanism.
 Material handling equipment may also shred to a certain degree, exposing
new surfaces for decomposition, but excessive shredding may also reduce
porosity.
 Aeration systems are usually set in the floor of the reactor and may use
temperature and/or oxygen as control variables.
 Systems with agitation and bed depths less than two to three meters appear
effective in dealing with the heterogeneity of MSW
Rotary Drum Composting
 Rotary Drum In-vessel Composting
 Rotating drum reactors take the trade-off between reactor cost and compost
residence time to an even further extreme than the horizontal or vertical in-
vessel systems.
 These reactors, also known as digesters, retain the material for only a few
hours or days.
 While the tumbling action can help homogenise and shred materials, the
short residence time usually means the processing is more physical than
biological.
 While rotating drums can play an important role in MSW composting, they
are normally followed by other biological processing, which may include in-
vessel, static pile and/or windrow systems.
 Anaerobic Composting
 In anaerobic processes, facultative bacteria break down the organic materials
in the absence of oxygen and produce methane and carbon dioxide.
 Anaerobic systems, if configured efficiently, will generate sufficient energy
in the form of methane to operate the process and have enough surpluses to
either market as gas or convert to electricity.
 Conventional composting systems, on the other hand, need significant
electrical or mechanical energy inputs to aerate or turn the piles.
 Several approaches are available for anaerobic digestion of feedstock.
 Single-stage digesters contain the entire process in one airtight container. In
this system, the feedstock is first shredded, and before being placed in the
container, water and possibly nutrients are added to the previously shredded
material.
 Anaerobic Composting
 A single-stage digester may contain agitation equipment, which continuously
stirs the liquefied material.
 The amount of water added and the presence or absence of agitation
equipment depend on the particular research demonstration or proprietary
process employed.
 The two-stage digestion involves circulating a liquid supernatant from a first
stage digester, containing the materials, to a second-stage digester.
 This circulation eliminates the need for agitation equipment and provides the
system operator with more opportunity to carefully control the biological
process.
 As digestion progresses, a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide is
produced.
 These gases are continuously removed from both first- and second-stage
digesters and are either combusted on-site or directed to off-site gas
consumers.
 Anaerobic Composting
 A portion of the recovered gas may be converted to thermal energy by
combustion, which is then used to heat the digester.
 A stabilised residue remains, when the digestion process is completed. The
residue is either removed from the digester with the mechanical equipment or
pumped out as a liquid.
 It is chemically similar to compost, but contains more moisture.
 Conventional dewatering equipment can reduce the moisture content enough
to handle the residue as a solid. The digested residue may require further
curing by windrow or static pile composting.
Factors affect composting
Biological
Chemical
Physical
Biological Process
Biological
Organisms that are actively involved in composting
 Bacteria
 Actinomycetes
 Fungi
 Protozoa
 Worms
 some larvae
Compost Phases
 Composting characteristically is an ecological succession of microbial
populations almost invariably present in wastes.
 The succession begins with the establishment of composting conditions.
 “Resident” (indigenous) microbes capable of utilizing nutrients in the raw
waste immediately begin to proliferate
Biological Process
Composting proceeds in three stages, namely
an initial lag period (“lag phase”),
a period of exponential growth and accompanying
intensification of activity (“active phase”)
eventually tapers into one of final decline, which continues
until ambient levels are reached (“curing phase” or “maturation
phase”)
Biological Process
 Compost is largely made up of microbial cells, microbial skeletons and by-products of
microbial decomposition, and undecomposed particles of organic and inorganic origin.
 Mesophilic, or moderate-temperature phase:
 Compost bacteria combine carbon with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and
energy.
 The microorganisms for reproduction and growth use some of the energy and the rest
is generated as heat.
 When a pile of organic refuse begins to undergo the composting process, mesophilic
bacteria proliferate, raising the temperature of the composting mass up to 44°C.
 This is the first stage of the composting process.
 These mesophilic bacteria can include E. coli and other bacteria from the human
intestinal tract, but these soon become increasingly inhibited by the temperature, as
the thermophilic bacteria take over in the transition range of 44°C – 52°C.
Biological Process
 Thermophilic, or high-temperature phase:
 In the second stage of the process, the thermophilic microorganisms are very active
and produce heat.
 This stage can continue up to about 70°C, although such high temperatures are
neither common nor desirable in compost.
 This heating stage takes place rather quickly and may last only a few days, weeks, or
months.
 It tends to remain localised in the upper portion of a compost pile where the fresh
material is being added, whereas in batch compost, the entire composting mass may
be thermophilic all at once.
 After the thermophilic heating period, the manure will appear to have been digested,
but the coarser organic material will not be digested.
 This is when the third stage of composting, i.e., the cooling phase, takes place.
Biological Process
 Cooling phase:
 During this phase, the microorganisms that were replaced by the thermophiles
migrate back into the compost and digest the more resistant organic materials.
 Fungi and macroorganisms such as earthworms and sow bugs that break the coarser
elements down into humus also move back in.

 Maturation or curing phase:

 The final stage of the composting process is called curing, ageing, or maturing stage,
and is a long and important one.
 A long curing period (e.g., a year after the thermophilic stage) adds a safety net for
pathogen destruction.
 Many pathogens have a limited period of viability in the soil, and the longer they are
subjected to the microbiological competition of the compost pile the more likely they
will die a swift death.
 Immature compost can be harmful to plants.
 Uncured compost can, for example, produce phytotoxins (i.e., substances toxic to
plants), robbing the soil of oxygen and nitrogen and contain high levels of organic
acids.
Chemical processes
 Carbon/energy source:
 For their carbon/energy source, microorganisms in the composting process rely on carbon in the
organic material, unlike higher plants that rely on carbon dioxide and sunlight.
 The carbon contained in natural or human-based organic materials may or may not be
biodegradable.
 Nutrients:
 Among the plant nutrients (i.e., nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium), nitrogen is of greatest
concern, because it is lacking in some plant materials.
 The carbon-nitrogen ratio, which is established on the basis of available carbon rather than total
carbon, is considered critical in determining the rate of decomposition.
 Leaves, for example, are a good source for carbon, and fresh grass, manure and slaughterhouse
waste are the sources for nitrogen. In general, an initial ratio of 30:1 (C: N or Carbon: Nitrogen)
is considered ideal.
 Higher ratios tend to retard the process of decomposition, while ratios below 25:1 may result in
odour problems.
 Finished compost should have ratios of 15 to 20:1. Adding 3 – 4 kg of nitrogen material for
every 100 kg of carbon should be satisfactory for efficient and rapid composting.
 To lower the carbon to nitrogen ratios, nitrogen-rich materials such as yard trimmings, animal
manures, or bio-solids are often added.
Chemical processes
 Moisture:
 Water is an essential part of all forms of life, and the microorganisms living in a compost pile
are no exception.
 Since most compostable materials have lower than ideal water content, i.e., 50 to 60% of total
weight, the composting process may be slower than desired, if water is not added.
 Oxygen:
 Composting is considered an aerobic process.
 Decomposition can occur under both aerobic (requiring oxygen) and anaerobic (lacking
oxygen) conditions.
 The compost pile should have enough void space to allow free air movement so that oxygen
from the atmosphere can enter the pile and the carbon dioxide and other gases emitted can be
exhausted to the atmosphere.
 A 10 to 15% oxygen concentration is considered adequate, although a concentration as low as
5% may be sufficient for leaves.
 While higher concentrations of oxygen will not negatively affect the composting process,
circulation of an excessive amount of air can cause problems.
 pH:
 The pH factor affects the amount of nutrients available for the microorganisms, the solubility of
heavy metals and the overall metabolic activity of the microorganisms.
 A pH between 6 and 8 is considered optimum, and it can be adjusted upward by the addition of
lime, or downward with sulphur, although such additions are normally not necessary.
Physical processes
 Particle size:
 As composting progresses, there is a natural process of size reduction and the particle size of the
material being composted is critical.
 Because smaller particles usually have more surface area per unit weight, they facilitate more
microbial activity on their surfaces, which leads to rapid decomposition.
 Temperature:
 Composting can occur at a range of temperatures, and the optimum temperature range is
between 32° and 60° C.
 Temperatures above 65° C are not ideal for composting as thermal destruction of cell proteins
kill the organisms.
 Similarly, temperatures below the minimum required for a group of organisms affect the
metabolic activity (i.e., regulatory machinery) of the cells.
Physical processes
 When compost is at a temperature greater than 55° C for at least three days, pathogen
destruction occurs. It is important that all portions of the compost material are exposed to such
temperatures to ensure pathogen destruction throughout the compost.
 At these temperatures, weed seeds are also destroyed. After the complete pathogen destruction,
temperatures may be lowered and maintained at slightly lower levels (51° to 55° C). Attaining
and maintaining 55° C for three days is not difficult for in-vessel composting systems.
 However, to achieve pathogen destruction with windrow composting systems, the 55° C
temperature level must be maintained for a minimum of 15 days, during which time the
windrows must be turned at least five times.
 The longer duration and increased turning are necessary to achieve a uniform pathogen
destruction in the entire pile.

 Mixing:
 Mixing of feedstock, water and inoculants is important and is done by turning or mixing the
piles after composting has begun.
 Mixing and agitation distribute moisture and air evenly, and promote the breakdown of compost
clumps. Excessive agitation of open vessels or piles, however, can cool them and retard
microbial activity.
Determine the amount of air required to compost 1000 Kg of soild
wastes using an in-vessel composting system with forced aeration.
Assume that the composition of the organic fraction of MSW is
C60H94.3O37.8N. Assume the following conditions and data: moisture
content of organic fraction of MSW = 25%, Volatile solids: 0.93 x
Total Solids, Biodegradable volatile solids: 0.6 x VS, expected BVS
conversion efficiency 95%, composting time 5 days, oxygen demand is
20, 35, 25, 15 and 5% for the successive days of the 5-day composting
period. The ammonia produced during the aerobic decomposition of
the waste is lost to the atmosphere. Air content 23 percent O 2 by mass,
and the specific weight of air is equal to 0.075 Kg/m 3. A factor of 2
times the actual air supplied will be needed to be assured that the
oxygen content of the air does not drop below 50 percent of its original
value.
Mass Fired System • Minimal Thermal Processing
is required before placing it in
charged hooper
• Unsuitable Materials manually
separated

1. Stoichiometry
Combustion
2. Excess air
combustion
3. Incomplete
combustion
(Gasification)
4. Pyrolysis

Air/Fuel ration
14.7:1
Petrol: 12:1
Diesel: 16:1
RDF Fired System
 WASTE TO ENERGY
HETROGENOUS WASTE - CLASSIFICATION

INORGANIC WASTES - METALS, GLASS,

DEBRIS, PORCELAIN

NON-BIODEGRADABLE - PLASTICS, RUBBER,

COMBUSTIBLES SYNTHETIC FIBRE,

BIODEGRADABLE - GARBAGE (Domestic, Veg.

Market and Garden),
SEWAGE, WASTE PAPER
INDUSTRIAL WASTES
 WASTE TO ENERGY
Advantages

* The quantity of waste gets reduced by nearly 60% to

over 90%, depending upon the waste composition and
the adopted technology

* Demand for land, which is already scarce in cities, for

landfilling is reduced;

* The cost of transportation of waste to far-away landfill

sites also gets reduced; and

* Net reduction in environmental pollution.

 WASTE TO ENERGY
TECHNOLOGICAL OPTIONS

• BIO-METHANATION

• SANITARY LANDFILLS

• PYROLYSIS / GASIFICATION

• COMBUSTION
 ENERGY FROM
MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTES
MAJOR PROCESSES INVOLVED

Pre-treatment : Removal of inerts and non-

biodegradable materials and
or homogenisation of feedstock

Energy Recovery : Anaerobic Digestion

/Gasification/ Combustion

Post-Treatment : Stabilisation of treated /

processed material for final
disposal / utilisation.
Waste Disposal on Land
Despite all efforts to minimize waste, the following
requirement for storage/disposal of the following types
of waste will continue to remain.
The solid waste that cannot be recycled.
The residual waste after all types of processing has
been undertaken.
 Available Options
Disposal on the earth’s surface.
Disposal deep below the earth’s surface.
Disposal at the Ocean bottom.

Among all the above three options,

Option 1 is the least desirable but it will
remain the best practical option for the
foreseeable future.
Waste Interaction with Hydrologic Cycle
When waste is stored on land, it becomes the part of the
hydrological cycle.
During infiltration of water through waste as well as during
runoff of water from the surface of waste, numerous contaminants
are removed from the waste to the adjacent areas as well as the
strata below the waste by the action of the percolating water.
This action of water along with the action of wind as well as
reactions occurring with in the waste can have significant impact
on the adjacent environment.
To minimize the impact of waste on the environment, final
disposal is done in “Engineered Landfills” which offer an
environmentally sustainable methodology for disposing waste on
land.
Impact on Environment
The potential impacting agents are:
• Solids in the waste
• Liquids in the pore space of the waste
• Gases emanating in the pore space of the waste
• Noise of the waste dumping vehicles
• Fine particles in the waste capable of wind erosion and
water erosion
• Light weight litter capable of being wind blown
The pathways of potential impact are:
Precipitation Ground water flow
Infiltration Rivers and storm
Seepage water drains
Evaporation Rodents and pests
Surface runoff Vegetative growth on
Prevailing wind
waste dumps
The impact of waste dump
on the environment
The receptor of the potential
impact are:
Adjoining areas
People
Animals
Vegetation
The Built Habitat
Protected wood lands
Waste Containment
The impact of a waste dump on the
environment can be minimized by isolating
at the source or by eliminating the pathway.

This can be achieved through containment

of the waste dump as shown in the
adjoining figure.
Engineered Landfills
The term landfill is used to describe a
facility used for the disposal of solid waste
on the surface of the earth.
The term engineered landfill is used to
denote a landfill designed and operated to
minimise environmental impact.
The components of the engineered
landfill are:

A liner system at the base and sides of the

landfill which prevents migration of
leachate or gas to the surrounding soil.
A leachate collection facility which collects
and extracts leachate from within and from
the base of the landfill and then treats the
leachate.
A gas control facility which collects and
extracts gas from within and from the top of
the landfill and then treats it or uses it for
energy recovery.
A final cover system which enhances surface
drainage and intercept infiltrating water and
supports surface vegetation. The final cover
system comprises of multiple layers of soils
and geomembrane materials.
A surface water drainage system which
collects and removes all surface runoff from
the landfill site.

An environmental monitoring system which

periodically collects and analyses air,
surface water, soil-gas and ground water
samples around the landfill site.
A closure and post closure plan which lists
the steps that must be taken to close and
secure a landfill site once the filling
operation has been completed and the
activities for long term monitoring and
maintenance of the completed landfill ( 30
to 50 Years).
Types of Landfills
Landfills can be classified as
Conventional MSW landfills.
Landfills for processed and shredded solid wastes.
Monofills for individual waste constituents (used for
industrial waste).
Other types of Landfills (For gas generation to generate
electricity).
 Implications of Disposal Above, On and Below Ground
Surface
Above Ground Landfills
Advantage
 Drainage of leachate is by gravity.
 Thickness of unsaturated zone below the Disadvantage
landfill is large.
 They alter the land use pattern of
 Landfill is conspicuous and thus cannot be the area.
ignored.
 They have more surface area
 Poor surface drainage due to settlement of exposed to elements of nature such
final landfill surface can be avoided. as wind, rain and require significant
 Inspection of the entire facility i.e. final cover, erosion control measures.
leachate collection system and gas collection
system is easier.
On and Just Below Ground Surface
Disadvantage
Advantage
 Leachate collection through
 More waste can be stored per unit land
regular pumping.
area in comparison to above ground
landfills.  Require good surface water
 Efficient use can be made of the drainage measures if located in
excavated material but using it as low lying areas and are closer to
landfill cover. ground water table than above
ground landfills.
 Productive use of the flat landfill
surface can be made on completion of
landfill.
 Long term slope stability and erosion
control requirements are not very
critical in such landfills.
Landfills Deep Beneath the Earth’s Surface
 Wastes can also be dumped in • On the other hand, if waste is disposed
underground openings, tunnels or in strong competent rock, the very low
caverns, however the cost of permeability of the rock mass coupled
construction in such cases is with multiple barriers layers ensures
extremely high. long term containment of the waste.
 If the disposal is in soil where water
• Such disposal techniques are adopted for
table is high, the waste would always extremely hazardous waste where cost
be surrounded by ground water and, considerations are out weighed by the
irrespective of the multiple barriers need for fail proof environment
used for waste isolation, the potential protection measures.
of ground water contamination would
always be high. • Waste disposal deep beneath the ground
surface has the least impact on the land
use pattern.
 Landfill Planning and Design Consideration

The landfill planning and design process consists of

Planning
Main Design
Construction operation Design
 Planning Phase
The planning phase includes
Site selection
Site Characterization
Finalization of completed landform-layout &
section
Evaluation of landfill capacity
Selection of operating methodology
Main Design Phase
The main design phase includes

Design of liner and leachate collection facility

Gas Control Facility
Cover System
Landfill Stability
Surface Water Drainage System
Environmental Monitoring System
Construction Operation Design Process

Site Development
Construction Schedule
Material and Equipment Requirement
Environmental Control During Operation
Closure and Post Closure Programmes
Site Selection
 The major issues which govern the selection of a site for a
landfill are environmental, economical and political.
 The political factor is heavily governed by public attitude and
to achieve acceptance, citizen groups must be involved in the
site selection process.
 The objective is to select a site with greatest protection to its
environment, at low cost and with public acceptance.
 Factors Considered in Site Selection
 Receptor Related Attributes  Pathway Related Attributes
 Population within 500 m  Distance to nearest surface water
 Distance to nearest drinking  Depth to ground water
well  Type of contamination
 Use of site by nearby residents  Precipitation
 Distance to nearest office  Soil permeability
building  Bed Rock Permeability
 Land use  Depth to bed rock
 Critical Environment  Susceptibility to erosion and runoff
 Climatic factors relating to air
pollution
 Susceptibility to seismic activity
 Waste Related Attributes  Waste Management
 Toxicity Related Attributes
 Radioactivity  Physical state
 Persistance  Waste quantity
 Ignitability  Waste compatibility
 Reactivity  Use of liners
 Corrosivity  Gas Treatment
 Solubility  Leachate Treatment
 Site security
 Volatility
 Safety measures
Site Characterization
Characterization of a proposed landfill site is carried out by
standard site investigation techniques with the following
objectives
 To establish that the site is suited for the intended purpose
 To establish baseline conditions
 To enable assessment of impact on the environment
 To undertake engineering design of the landfill
 To dump a pollution monitoring programme
An adequate site investigation methodology provides information
on topographical, geotechnical, geological and hydrological
conditions with the following details
 Surface landform, surface water drainage, surface water quality
 Nature and properties of subsurface strata
 Depth to water table, fluctuations in water table, ground water
flow and quantity
 Current land use pattern with any history of mining or quarring
 Availability of top soil and other materials to be used for
covering/restoration of landfill
 Background levels of gas, noise, dust etc.
Landfill Layout
A landfill site will comprise of the area in which the waste will
be filled as well as additional area for support facilities. Within
the area to be filled, work may proceed in phases with only a
part of the area under active operation.
Landfill Section
Landfills may have different types of sections depending on the
topography of the area, the depth of ground water table and
availability of suitable daily cover material. The landfill may
take the following forms

Above ground landfills

are used in those areas
where GWT is high.
Below ground landfill are suitable for
areas where adequate cover material is
available and GWT is not near the surface.

Above and below ground landfill--------

Slope landfill ------------------------------

Valley landfills----------------------------
Control of surface drainage is the major
critical factor for valley type of landfill.
Trenches of landfills vary from 100 to
300 m in length, 1 to 3 m in depth and
5 to 15 m in width with side slopes of
2:1.
Landfill Capacity
 On the basis of the landfill layout and landfill section, the nominal
capacity of a landfill can be computed using the contour map of the area.
 The actual (usable) capacity of the landfill will depend upon the volume
occupied by the cover material (daily, intermediate and final cover) as
well as the compacted density of the waste.
 Also, the amount of settlement a waste will under go due to overburden
stress and due to biochemical degradation should also be taken into
account.
 For planning purposes, a density of 0.65 to 1.0 t/m3 may be adopted for
biodegradable waste with higher values for inert waste.
 Settlement of the completed waste mass beneath the final cover will occur
as a result of the consolidation of waste with in a landfill site. A typical
allowance of 15% can be made when usable landfill capacity is computed.
Planning of Phased Operation
Before the main design of a landfill, it is important to develop the operating
methodology.
A landfill is operated in phases due to
 It allows the progressive use of the landfill area such that at any given time
a part of the site may have a final cover, a part being actively filled, a part
being prepared to receive waste and a part undisturbed.
 It enables progressive excavation of on-site fill materials and minimisation
of double handling.
 It minimizes the area required for landfill operations at any one time and
conventrates waste disposal activities within a sequence of defined and
prepared areas.
 It reduces leachate generation by keeping areas of active filling to a
minimum.
 It enables progressive installation of leachate and gas control.
 It allows clean surface water runoff, both within and outside the site, to be
collected separately.
Phase:- It is the sub area of
the landfill. A phase consists
of cells, lifts, daily cover,
intermediate cover, liner and
leachate collection facility,
gas control facility and final
cover over the sub-area.
Each phase is typically
designed for a period of 12 to
18 months.

Cell:- It is used to describe the

volume of material placed in
a landfill during one
operating period usually one
day.
Daily cover:- It consists of 15 to 30 cm of native soil that is
applied to the working faces. The purpose of this cover is
 To control the blowing of waste materials
 To prevent rats, flies and other disease vectors from entering or
exiting the landfill
 To control the entry of water into the landfill during operation
Lift:- It is a complete layer of cells over the active area of the
landfill. Typically each landfill phase is comprised of a series of
lifts. Intermediate covers are placed at the end of each phase;
these are thicker than daily covers and remain exposed till the
next phase is placed over it.
Bench:- A bench is a terrace which is used when the height of the
landfill exceeds 15 to 20 m. The final left includes the cover
layer.
Landfill Liner and Leachate Collection Facility

 The liquid that is collected at the bottom of a landfill is known as leachate.

 The function of a landfill liner is to prevent or minimize the passage of

leachate generated inside a landfill from reaching the soil and ground water
beneath the landfill.
 The function of leachate collection facility is to

 Remove leachate contained within the site by the liner system for treatment and

disposal according to the site’s objectives.

 Control and usually minimize leachate heads with in the site.

 Avoid damage to the liner system.

Landfill liner comprise of
 Compacted clays
 Geomembranes
 Geosynthetic clay liner
 Combinations

 Leachate collection systems comprise of a leachate drainage

network and leachate removal facility.
 Drainage networks comprise of coarse grained soils, perforated
pipes or geotextile drainage layers.
 Drainage removal facility comprises of a system of sumps,
wells and pumps.
 Leachate drainage and removal facilities are designed after
estimating the quantity of leachate on the basis of a water
balance for the landfill.
 Gas Control Facility
 The uncontrolled release of landfill gas,
• Landfill gas generation rates vary over
methane contributes to the green house
effect. a wide range. Typically generation rates
 Landfill gas can migrate laterally and vary from 1 to 8 lit/kg/year.
potentially cause explosions. Landfills • Bhide (1993) reported landfill gas
are therefore provided with gas production rates of 6-9 cum/hour from
collection and processing facilities. the landfill sites in India having an area
 The rate of gas production varies of 8 ha and depth of 5 to 8 m.
depending on the operating procedure.
 The decesion to use horizontal or
vertical gas recovery wells depends on
the design and capacity of the landfill.
 The decision of flare or to recover
energy from the landfill gas is
determined by the capacity of the
landfill site and the opportunity to sell
power produced from the conversion of
landfill gas to energy.
 Final Cover
• A landfill cover is usually composed of
several layers.
• The final cover system must enhance
surface drainage, minimize infiltration and
support vegetation.
• The use of a geo membrane liner as a
barrier layer is favoured by most landfill
designers to limit the entry of surface
water and to control the release of landfill
gases.
• The specific cover configuration will
depend on the climatologically conditions.
To allow for regrading, some designers
favour the use of a deep layer of soil.
• To ensure the rapid removal of rainfall
from the completed landfill and to avoid
the formation of puddles, the final cover
should have a slope of about 3 to 5%.
Surface Water Drainage
Surface water management is required to ensure that
 Rainwater runoff does not drain into the waste from
surrounding area.
 Rainfall does not generate excessive quantities of leachate.
 Contaminated surface runoff from the operational area does
not enter water courses.
 Slopes on the landfill are protected from infiltration and
erosion.
 Final cover soils are not subject to ponding or water
logging.
These objectives are achieved by the following
 Rain water running off slopes above and outside the landfill area
should be intercepted and channeled to water courses without entering
the operational area of the site. This channel may require a low
permeability lining to prevent leakage into the landfill.
 Rain falling on active tipping areas should be collected separately and
managed as leachate, via the leachate collection drain and leachate
collection sumps to the leachate treatment and disposal system.
 Rainfall on areas with in the landfill site which are not actively being
used for waste disposal should be diverted away from active tipping
areas, and directed through a settling pond to remove suspended silt,
prior to discharge.
 Any drainage channels or drains constructed on the final landfill
surface should be able to accommodate settlement, resist erosion and
cope with localised storm conditions.
Stability Aspects
During the construction and operation of a landfill, there are
several stages during which one has to assess the stability
of slopes. Thease includes
 Stability of excavated slopes in below ground landfills.
 Stability of temporary waste slopes during waste filling
 Stability of final slopes in above ground landfills.
 Stability of liner slopes and cover slopes
For the above, standard methods are available to check the
stability.
 Environmental Monitoring System
Monitoring systems are required at new landfills for
 Gases and liquids in the unsaturated zone
 For ground water quality both upstream and downstream of the landfill site in
the saturated zone
 For air quality on the surface and at the boundary of the landfill and from any
processing facilities
The specific number of monitoring stations will depend on the configuration and
size of the landfill and the requirements of the local air and water pollution
control agencies. A typical monitoring system
 Evaluates leachate head with in the landfills
 Leakage beneath the landfill
 Pore gas and pore fluid quality in the vadose zone
 Air quality in gas vents and gas treatment facility
 Water quality in ground water monitoring wells
 Leachate quality in leachate collection tanks and water quality in storm water
drains.
Construction Schedule
Once the completed landform and the operating
methodology is finalised, the solid waste filling
plan should be visualised. Construction schedules
should then be drawn up considering
Arrival sequence of waste vehicles
Time sequence to be followed during filling
Effect of wind and climate
Traffic patterns on the access highways
Environmental impact on adjoining areas.
Material Requirement
A complete material requirement plan for each of the phases should be
prepared in the beginning. Materials may be required for
 Ground water drainage- granular material.
 Lining clay, sand, synthetic membrane
 Leachate drainage blankets- granular material
 Internal and external bunds – suitable fill
 Gas venting and collection – granular material
 Haul roads – base course and sub base course
 Daily cover – suitable material during site operations
 Final cover layer- clay or synthetic membrane
 Pipe work zone, drainage and protection layers above the barrier
layer – suitable soils, granular or screened material
 Restoration layers – subsoil and top soil.
Equipment Requirement
The type, size and amount of equipment required will depend
on the size of the landfill and the method of operation. The
type of equipment required at site comprises of
 Crawler tractors/dozers- for excavating, spreading,
levelling
 Landfill compactors/rollers for compacting
 Wheeled loader-back hoes for excavating, trenching,
loading and short hauling
The size and amount of equipment will depend primarily on
the size of the landfill operation. Local site conditions,
including manerover ability in restricted spaces, will also
influence the size of the equipment.
Environmental Control During Operation
Environmental control during operation relates to minimising the impact of the
landfilling operation on nearby residents as well as the public that may be
passing by the landfill. This can be achieved by
 Providing screens in the active areas in the landfill.
 Presence of birds at the landfill site is nuisance and it can be serious problem
if the landfill is near the airport. This problem can be over come by
 Use of noise makers
 Use of over head wires
 Use of recording of the sounds made by birds
 Wind-blown paper, plastics etc can be a problem at the landfill site. This can
be overcome by
 Providing portable screens near the operating face of the landfill.
 Removing the accumulated materials on the screen daily
 Dust control can be achieved by spraying water on the approach roads.
 The problems of flies, pests, mosquitoes and rodents can be controlled by
placing daily cover and by eliminating stagnant water.
Landfill Closure and Post Closure Plan
A closure and post closure plan shall be made to ensure that a
landfill will be maintained for 30-50 years in the future.
A closure plan includes
 Landfill cover and landscaping of the completed site.
 Long term plans for the control of runoff, erosion, gas and
leachate collection & treatment.
Post closure plan includes
 A routine inspection of completed landfill.
 Maintenance of surface water diversion facilities, landfill surface
grades, the condition of liners.
 Maintenance of landfill gas and leachate collection equipment.
 Long term environmental monitoring plan so that no
contaminants is released from the landfill site.