The document discusses various machining processes and factors that influence chip formation. It describes common machining operations like turning, milling, and cutting-off. It explains different types of chips produced - continuous, built-up edge, serrated, and discontinuous - and factors that affect chip curl. It also discusses tool wear, temperature rise during machining, and how to reduce built-up edge formation and break long chips using chip breakers.
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Original Title
1- Chapter 6 - 1 - 1 Material Removal Process - introduction 21-1
The document discusses various machining processes and factors that influence chip formation. It describes common machining operations like turning, milling, and cutting-off. It explains different types of chips produced - continuous, built-up edge, serrated, and discontinuous - and factors that affect chip curl. It also discusses tool wear, temperature rise during machining, and how to reduce built-up edge formation and break long chips using chip breakers.
The document discusses various machining processes and factors that influence chip formation. It describes common machining operations like turning, milling, and cutting-off. It explains different types of chips produced - continuous, built-up edge, serrated, and discontinuous - and factors that affect chip curl. It also discusses tool wear, temperature rise during machining, and how to reduce built-up edge formation and break long chips using chip breakers.
effects. How cutting tools wear and fail. Surface finish and integrity of parts produced by machining. Machinability of materials. Cutting processes remove material from the surface of a workpiece by producing chips. Some of the more common cutting processes are as follow:
1. Turning, in which the workpiece is rotated and a cutting tool
removes a layer of material as it moves to the left. 2. Cutting-off operation, where the cutting tool moves radially inward and separates the right piece from the bulk of the blank. 3. Slab-milling operation, in which a rotating cutting tool removes a layer of material from the surface of the workpiece. 4. End-milling operation, in which a rotating cutter travels along a certain depth in the workpiece and produces a cavity. Fig 21.1 shows some examples of common machining operations. Fig 21.2 shows the schematic illustration of the turning operation showing various features. The factors that influence the cutting process are outlined in Table 21.1. In order to appreciate the contents of this table, let’s now identify the major independent variables in the cutting process as follows: ◦ (a) tool material and coatings; ◦ (b) tool shape, surface finish, and sharpness; ◦ (c) workpiece material and condition; ◦ (d) cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut; ◦ (e) cutting fluids; ◦ (f) characteristics of the machine tool; and ◦ (g) workholding and fixturing. Dependent variables in cutting are those that are influenced by changes in the independent variables listed above, and include: (a) type of chip produced, (b) force and energy dissipated during cutting, (c) temperature rise in the workpiece, the tool, and the chip, (d) tool wear and failure, and (e) surface finish and surface integrity of the workpiece. A typical question posed is which of the independent variables should be changed first, and to what extent, if (a) the surface finish of the workpiece being cut is poor and unacceptable, (b) the cutting tool wears rapidly and becomes dull, (c) the workpiece becomes very hot, and (d) the tool begins to vibrate and chatter. The four main types are: 1. Continuous 2. Built-up edge 3. Serrated or segmented 4. Discontinuous Continuous chips Continuous chips usually are formed with ductile materials, machined at high cutting speeds and/or high rake angles. The deformation of the material takes place along a narrow shear zone called the primary shear zone. Continuous chips may develop a secondary shear zone because of high friction at the tool– chip interface; this zone becomes thicker as friction increases. Deformation in continuous chips also may take place along a wide primary shear zone with curved boundaries. This problem can be alleviated with chip breakers (to follow) or by changing parameters, such as cutting speed, feed, depth of cut, and by using cutting fluids. Built-up edge chips A built-up edge (BUE) consists of layers of material from the workpiece that gradually are deposited on the tool tip—hence the term built-up. Built-up edge commonly is observed in practice. It is a major factor that adversely affects surface finish, however, a thin, stable BUE usually is regarded as desirable because it reduces tool wear by protecting its rake face. Built-up edge chips The tendency for BUE formation can be reduced by one or more of the following means: 1. Increase the cutting speeds 2. Decrease the depth of cut 3. Increase the rake angle 4. Use a sharp tool 5. Use an effective cutting fluid 6. Use a cutting tool that has lower chemical affinity for the workpiece material Serrated chips are semicontinuous chips with large zones of low shear strain and small zones of high shear strain, hence the latter zone is called shear localization. Metals with low thermal conductivity and strength that decreases sharply with temperature (thermal softening) exhibit this behavior, most notably titanium. Discontinuous chips Discontinuous chips consist of segments that may be attached firmly or loosely to each other. Discontinuous chips usually form under the following conditions: 1. Brittle workpiece materials, because they do not have the capacity to undergo the high shear strains involved in cutting. 2. Workpiece materials that contain hard inclusions and impurities or have structures such as the graphite flakes in gray cast iron. 3. Very low or very high cutting speeds 4. Large depths of cut. 5. Low rake angles. 6. Lack of an effective cutting fluid. 7. Low stiffness of the toolholder or the machine tool, thus allowing vibration and chatter to occur. Because of the discontinuous nature of chip formation, forces continually vary during cutting. Consequently, the stiffness or rigidity of the cutting-tool holder, the workholding devices, and the machine tool are important in cutting with serrated chips as well as with discontinuous chips. Chip Curl In all cutting operations performed on metals, as well as nonmetallic materials such as plastics and wood, chips develop a curvature (chip curl) as they leave the workpiece surface. Among factors affecting the chip curl are: 1. The distribution of stresses in the primary and secondary shear zones. 2. Thermal effects. 3. Work-hardening characteristics of the workpiece material. 4. The geometry of the cutting tool 5. Cutting fluid Generally, as the depth of cut decreases, the radius of curvature decreases; that is, the chip becomes curlier. Also, cutting fluids can make chips become more curly, thus reducing the tool–chip contact area and concentrating the heat closer to the tip of the tool. As a result, tool wear increases. Chip Breakers Continuous and long chips are undesirable as they tend to become entangled and severely interfere with machining operations and also become a potential safety hazard. Fig 21.7(a) shows the schematic illustration of the action of a chip breaker. Note that the chip breaker decreases the radius of curvature of the chip and eventually breaks it. (b) Chip breaker clamped on the rake face of a cutting tool. (c) Grooves in cutting tools acting as chip breakers. Most cutting tools used now are inserts with built-in chip-breaker features. Chip breakers have traditionally been a piece of metal clamped to the tool’s rake face, which bend and break the chip. However, most modern cutting tools and inserts now have built-in chip-breaker features of various designs. Fig 21.8 shows the chips produced in turning: (a) tightly curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece and breaks; (c) continuous chip moving radially away from workpiece; and (d) chip hits tool shank and breaks off. In interrupted-cutting operations (such as milling), chip breakers generally are not necessary, since the chips already have finite lengths. Controlled contact on tools Cutting tools can be designed so that the tool–chip contact length is reduced by recessing the rake face of the tool some distance away from its tip. This reduction in contact length affects chip- formation mechanics. Primarily, it reduces the cutting forces and, thus, the energy and temperature. Determination of an optimum length is important as too small a contact length would concentrate the heat at the tool tip, thus increasing wear. Cutting nonmetallic materials A variety of chips are encountered in cutting thermoplastics, depending on the type of polymer and process parameters, such as depth of cut, tool geometry, and cutting speed. Many of the discussions concerning metals also are applicable generally to polymers. Because they are brittle, thermosetting plastics and ceramics generally produce discontinuous chips. The majority of machining operations involve tool shapes that are three-dimensional, thus the cutting is oblique. Whereas in orthogonal cutting, the chip slides directly up the face of the tool, in oblique cutting, the chip is helical and at an angle i, called the inclination angle. Fig 21.9(a) shows the schematic illustration of cutting with an oblique tool. Note the direction of chip movement. (b) Top view, showing the inclination angle, i. (c) Types of chips produced with tools at increasing inclination angles. Fig 21.10(a) shows the schematic illustration of a right-hand cutting tool. The various angles on these tools and their effects on machining. Although these tools traditionally have been produced from solid tool-steel bars, they have been replaced largely with Fig 21.10(b) inserts made of carbides and other materials of various shapes and sizes. Shaving and skiving Thin layers of material can be removed from straight or curved surfaces by a process similar to the use of a plane to shave wood. Shaving is useful particularly in improving the surface finish and dimensional accuracy of sheared parts and punched slugs. Skiving = Shave for long material. Shave with sharp cutting tool that moves tangentially across the length of the piece