Chapter 3 Multicellular and tissue level

organization
 Evolutionary perspective

 Portuguese man of war is a polymorphic, colonial coelenterate called Physalia

physalis.
 It is called Portuguese man-of-war because of its resemblance with
Portuguese vessels sailing in sea in 15th and 16th centuries.
  It gets its name from the uppermost polyp, a gas-filled bladder.
 The name "man o' war" comes from the man-of-war, an 18th-century armed
sailing ship,[4] and the cnidarian's resemblance to the Portuguese version at
full sail
Origin of multicellularity

 All multicellular organisms, from fungi to humans, started out life as single
cell organisms. These cells were able to survive on their own for billions of
years before aggregating together to form multicellular groups.
 The Colonial Theory proposes that cooperation among cells of the same
species led to the development of a multicellular organism. Multicellular
organisms, depending on their complexity, may be organized from cells to
tissues, organs, and organ systems.
Syncetical hypothesis

 The syncytial theory predicted that the nervous system was composed of

many neurons with shared cytoplasm. These nerves were thought to be
present in the embryo from a very early stage and were selected by the
function of the target tissue
ANIMAL ORIGIN

 Monophyletic
 The term monophyly, or monophyletic, derives from the two Ancient
Greek words μόνος (mónos), meaning "alone, only, unique",
and φῦλον (phûlon), meaning "genus, species", and refers to the fact that a
monophyletic group includes organisms (e.g., genera, species) consisting of
all the descendants of a unique common ancestor.

 Aster formation
 Flagellated sperm
 The alternative diphyletic
 This theory has been proposed by many zoologists. It contends that the
higher metazoans had two lines of descent; one led to annelids, arthropods,
and mollusks, and the other led to echinoderms and chordates. Both groups
emanated from an ancient flatworm.

 Polyphyltic
 Many ancestors
PHYLUM PORIFERA
Sponges are animals of the Phylum porifera (meaning pore bears).

Sponges are a diverse group with about 5000 species known across the world.

sponges are primarily marine, but around 150 species live in fresh water
 General characteristic:
 1. Sponges have a system of pores and canals, allowing water to circulate
through them
 2. Sponges are asymmetrical.
 3. Many sponges have internal skeletons of spongin (a modified type of
collagen protein) and/or spicules (silica or calcium carbonate).
 4. Sponges are multicellular, Diploblasts animals.
 5. Sponges consisting of jelly-like mesohyl sandwiched between two thin
layers of cells.
 6. Sponges have unspecialized cells that can transform into other types and
that often migrate between the main cell layers and the mesohyl.
 7. Sponges do not have nervous, digestive or circulatory systems, Instead,
most rely on maintaining a constant water flow through their bodies to obtain
food and oxygen and to remove wastes.
 All sponges are sessile aquatic animals. 9. While most of the approximately
5,000–10,000 known species feed on bacteria and other food particles in the
water, some host photosynthesizing microorganisms as endosymbionts and
these microorganisms often produce more food and oxygen than they
consume. A few species of sponge that live in food-poor environments have
become carnivores that prey mainly on small crustaceans. 10.Most species use
sexual reproduction, releasing sperm cells into the water to fertilize ova . A
few species reproduce by budding
 4. Class: Classification of phylum porifera :

 1. Class: Calacaea

 This class have two orders I. Order: Homocoela ….leucosolenia II. Order:

Heterocoela…..Sycon

 2. Class: Hexactinellida ( glass sponges)

 3. Class: Demospongia
 Type of cells in sponges

 1. Pinacocytes are flat cells form a single-layered external skin of sponges,

they are thin, leathery and tightly packed together 2. Porocyte are unique,
elongated, tubular cells ,extended through the jelly having their base in the
covering layer while apex reaches the paragastric between the choanocyte ,
that act as valves to regulate the flow of water into the spongocoel, from
surrounding aquatic habitat. The pore through which water flows in is called
ostium (singular). ostia (plural). 3. Amoebocytes (or archaeocytes), they move
throughout the mesohyl in an amoeba-like fashion.
 These cells are changed from type to another Amoebocytes have a variety of

functions: delivering nutrients from choanocytes to other cells within the

sponge, giving rise to eggs for sexual reproduction (which remain in the

mesohyl), delivering phagocytized sperm from choanocytes to eggs, and

differentiating into more-specific cell types. Such as: collencytes,

sclerocytes, spongocytes.
 Gland cells 3 5. Myocytes ("muscle cells") conduct signals and cause parts of

the animal to contract. 6. Choanocytes (“collar cells”) The inner surface is

covered with choanocytes, these cells with cylindrical or conical collars

(microvilli) surrounding one flagellum per choanocyte. 7. Grey cells" act as

sponges' equivalent of an immune system.

 Types of sponges 1. Asconoid: sponges have the simplest type of organization.
Perforated by pores. Small and tube shaped, water enters the sponge through
dermal pores and flows into the spongcoel. Which Choanocyte (collar cell) are
present. There is a single opening to the outside called osculum. 2. Syconoid :
sponges tend to be larger than asconoid, have a tubular body with a single
osculum, the body wall is thicker and the pores that penetrate it are longer
forming system of canals these canals are lined by collar cells, the flagella of
the cells move water from the outside into the spongcoel and out the
osculum.
 Reproduction in sponges:
 1. Asexual reproduction: Sponges have three asexual methods of
reproduction:
 Fragmentation, Budding; The bud thus formed grows outward to produce a
small individual, which either remains attached with the parent individual or
gets detached and attached to a nearby rock to grow into colony. Fresh water
sponge as well as several marine species, form resistant structure called
Gemmules; are specialised bodies which survive during unfavourable
conditions such as drying or cold and germinate to produce new sponges.
Gemmules are aggregates of sponges' tissues and food material covered by
thick hard coating containing spicules or sponge fibers.
FEEDING MECHANISM

 sponges live attached to the seafloor. Because they are attached, they are
called sessile. In order obtain food, sponges pass water through their bodies
in a process known as filter-feeding. Water is drawn into the sponge through
tiny holes called incurrent pores.

 xcretion occurs through both the oscula and the surface of the sponge.
Special amoebocytes disintegrate in the mesohyl, and their granules are
expelled through the canals. The excretory products of the sponges—ammonia
and other nitrogen-containing substances—account for their characteristic
unpleasant odour.
 2. Sexual reproduction: most sponges are hermaphrodite, same individual produce
sperms and ova. But in some species sexes are separated Although most sponges are
hermaphrodite but crossfertilization is the rule because eggs and sperms are
produced at different times.

 Oocytes are produced inside the body and remain inside mesoglea waiting for
fertilization. sperms leave the body of sponge through osculum, then from water
enter the body of another sponge through canal system and reach choanocytes which
transport the sperm body without tail to the mature ova that wait in the mesogloea.

 The sperm nucleus then fuses with the nucleus of ovum, (fertilization), then
formation of a larval stage (gastrula) which swims and settles on a rock with and
grows to form little sponge - Monoecious - Dioecious


asexual
cnidaria
 Cnidarian is derived from a Greek word “cnidos” meaning stinging thread. 
 cnidarian, also called coelenterate, any member of the phylum Cnidaria
(Coelenterata), a group made up to 10,000 living species. Mostly marine animals, the
cnidarians include the corals, hydras, jellyfish, Portuguese men-of-war, sea anemones, 
sea pens, sea whips, and sea fans.

 The phylum Cnidaria is made up of four classes: Hydrozoa (hydrozoans); Scyphozoa

 (scyphozoans); Anthozoa (anthozoans); and Cubozoa (cubozoans). All cnidarians share
several attributes, supporting the theory that they had a single origin. Variety and
symmetry of body forms, varied coloration, and the sometimes complex life histories of
cnidarians fascinate layperson and scientist alike. Inhabiting all marine and some
freshwater environments, these animals are most abundant and diverse in tropical
waters. Their calcareous skeletons form the frameworks of the reefs and atolls in most
tropical seas, including the Great Barrier Reef that extends more than 2,000 kilometres.
 Cnidarians are radially symmetrical (i.e., similar parts are arranged
symmetrically around a central axis). They lack cephalization (concentration
of sensory organs in a head), their bodies have two cell layers rather than the
three of so-called higher animals, and the saclike coelenteron has one
opening (the mouth). They are the most primitive of animals whose cells are
organized into distinct tissues, but they lack organs. Cnidarians have two
body forms—polyp and medusa—which often occur within the life cycle of a
single cnidarian.
characteristics

 Mostly marine entities while few such as hydra are found in freshwater
 While some are solitary (sea anemone) some others are colonial (Corals)
 Depict a tissue grade of organization and are diploblastic
 Members exhibit radial symmetry, however sea anemones exhibit biradial symmetry
 Body wall comprises an outer epithelium referred to as epidermis and inner epithelium referred to
as gastrodermis. There is a gelatinous mesoglea found between the inner and outer epidermis
 There are two different forms of cnidarians – Polyp and medusa. Polyp is hydroid form, sessile with
mouth-up orientation. The medusa is bell or umbrella shaped with mouth down alignment
 Mesoglea comprises amoeboid cells which come from the ectoderm. The mesoglea in polyps is thin
and thick in medusa, essential for buoyancy
 Body wall comprises stinging cells referred to as cnidocytes. Each of the cnidocyte cells comprises
fluid filled membranous capsules – cnida. Cnidocytes are functional in defending and capturing prey
 Most cnidarians have two tissue layers. The outer layer, the ectoderm, has
cells that aid in capturing food and cells that secrete mucus. The inner layer,
the endoderm, has cells that produce digestive enzymes and break up food
particles. The jellylike material between the two layers is called the
mesoglea.
 nematocyst, minute, elongated, or spherical capsule produced exclusively by
members of the phylum Cnidaria (e.g., jellyfish, corals, sea anemones).
Several such capsules occur on the body surface. Each is produced by a
special cell called a cnidoblast and contains a coiled, hollow, usually barbed
thread, which quickly turns outward (i.e., is everted) from the capsule upon
proper stimulation. The purpose of the thread, which often contains poison, is
to ward off enemies or to capture prey.
 When stimulated by chemical or mechanical cues, a lidlike structure on the
top of the capsule pops aside, and the thread everts explosively with a
twisting motion. As eversion and twisting proceed, the barbs act like a drill,
penetrating into (and pulling the thread into) the foreign object. If a toxin is
present, it passes through the hollow thread, penetrating and paralyzing the
victim’s tissues. After eversion, the thread separates from the nematocyst.
The threads of some nematocysts ensnare small prey by wrapping about
them. The stinging effect of nematocysts in the Portuguese man-of-war and
some jellyfish (qq.v.) species can be extremely painful to humans and may
cause paralysis, shock, and even death.

Alternation of generations

 is a type of life cycle that switches between two forms, the asexual polyp and
the sexual medusa. Each reproduction, one form will give rise to the other.
For example, a polyp will go through asexual reproduction to produce
medusae and vice versa with sexual reproduction among medusae. In the
phylum Cnidaria, class Hydrozoa has many groups that have alternation of
generations. The best model of this process is Obelia, which has equally
balanced forms. Although the traits of polyps and medusae may be quite
different because of their lifestyles, there are similarities such as the
gastrovascular cavity with tentacles around the mouth, radial symmetry and
the same layers of tissue. The differences between polyps and medusae
merely lie with the orientation of these parts and what they are used for.
Maintaince functions
nutrition
 All cnidarians are carnivores. Most use their cnidae and associated toxin to
capture food, although none is known actually to pursue prey. Sessile polyps
depend for food on organisms that come into contact with their tentacles.
Some, such as colonial corals with minute polyps, feed on particulate
material gathered in mucus impelled to the mouth by cilia (microscopic
hairlike projections of cells capable of beating or waving). A hydromedusa
alternately swims upward and sinks: on the upward course, its trailing
tentacles are not apt to encounter food organisms, but in sinking, the
extended tentacles “fish” through the water, capturing food. Once a food
item has been captured, tentacles move it to the mouth, either by bending in
that direction or by passing it to tentacles nearer the mouth. The mouth
opens, the lips grasp the food, and muscular actions complete swallowing.
Maintaince functions

 The gastrodermis line the gastrovascular cavity. The gastrovascular cavity functions in
digestion, circulation, and sometimes it serves as a hydro-static skeleton. It is able
to create a transfer  of respiratory gasses and metabolic wastes, also it can discharge
gametes. The gastrovascular cavity has a mouth that opens to the external environment. 

Some cnidarians are able to feed on small fish. These fish can be captured and paralyzed by
the cnidarian's nematocysts. There are contractile cells in the cnidarian's
tentacles that cause the tentacles to be drawn back. The small fish is passed through the
mouth and into the gastrovascular cavity, then gastrodermal cells release mucus and
enzymes that turn the food into a "soupy broth". Nutritive-muscular cells, type of
gastrodermal cell, are able to phagocytize partially digested food, which are then given to
vacuoles, completing digestion. Nutritive-muscular cells have circularly oriented contractile
fibers that aid in moving materials in and out the gastrovascular cavity.
 Besides functioning in digestion and circulation the gastrovascular cavity can
be a hydro-static skeleton. A hydro-static skeleton is water or body fluids
confined in a cavity of the body and against which contractile elements of the
body wall act. Epitheliomuscular cells are contractile and help in movement.
These cells help when a polyp is closing it's mouth to prevent water from
escaping. The polyp contract longitudinal epitheliomuscular cells on one side
of the polyp, this causes the polyp to bend toward that side. But, if the
epitheliomuscular cells were to contract while the mouth was open the polyp
would collapse and water escapes. Circular epitheliomuscular cells
also constrict a part of the polyp, the mouth being closed causes water in the
gastrovascular cavity to become compressed, which elongates the polyp.
 Polyp are able to move through somersaulting from their base to their
tentacles and then from tentacles to base. Also, the are able to move through
an inchworm manner, by using their base and tentacles for attachment.
Polyps are also able to slide along their substrate. Medusae are able to swim
and float, and water currents and wind help them move horizontally. Circular
epitheliomuscular cells create pulsations underneath the medusa, allowing it
to move through water. 

Large surface-area-to-volume ratios  in cnidarians cause all cells to be a short

distance from the body surface, and oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogenous
wastes exchange through diffusion. 
support

 cnidarians have a hydrostatic skeleton. The contractile fibers act against the
fluid-filled gastrovascular cavity. The movements are like a balloon; the
animal can be short and thick or long and thin. Cnidarians have a saclike gut
and extracellular digestion.
 It is formed by the fluid-filled compartment within the body. This fluid-filled
compartment is called the coelom. The coelom supports the other organs of
the organism. Hydrostatic pressure on the body fluid is created by muscle
movement. The hydrostatic skeleton is present in soft-bodied animals such as
Cnidaria, earthworms, Red-knobbed sea star, and sea anemones. This
hydrostatic skeleton helps in the movement of the organisms, movement of
the tentacles, opening, and closing of the mouth, changing the body shape
 Locomotion
 Medusae swim by jet propulsion (see below Tissues and muscles). However,
most do so weakly and are carried passively by currents over long distances.
 Polyps are generally sedentary. Pennatulacean colonies move slowly across
soft substrata by action of their inflatable peduncle (a stalk that attaches to
the strata in the lower end and to the polyp body on the higher end).
 Sea anemones that are attached to firm substrata can creep slowly on their
pedal disks or detach altogether, often in response to unfavourable physical
conditions or to attack by predators. When provoked by certain starfish and
nudibranchs, individuals of a few anemone species swim by paddling their
tentacles or flexing their columns.
coordination

 Cnidarians have simple nervous systems and it was probably within this group
or a closely-related ancestor that nervous systems first evolved. The basic
plan of the cnidarian nervous system is that of a nerve net which, at some
locations, has condensed to form nerve plexuses, or circular or longitudinal
nerve tracts which may be syncytia. At the ultrastructural level, many
cnidarian neurons have the combined characteristics of sensory, motor, inter-
and neurosecretory neurons and thus appear to be multifunctional. We
propose that these multifunctional neurons resemble the ancestors of the
more specialized neurons that we find in higher animals today
 Cnidarians lack organs. This means that they do not have respiratory or
circulatory systems. Like the cells in sponges, the cells in cnidarians get
oxygen directly from the water surrounding them.
 Excretion

 here is no excretory system or organs; nitrogenous wastes simply diffuse from

the cells into the water outside the animal or in the gastrovascular cavity.
 Classification
 cnidarians are classified into four main groups: the almost wholly sessile
Anthozoa (sea anemones, corals, sea pens); swimming Scyphozoa (jellyfish);
Cubozoa (box jellies); and Hydrozoa (a diverse group that includes all the
freshwater cnidarians as well as many marine forms, and has both sessile
members, such as Hydra ...
Hydrozoa 

 Class I: Hydrozoa (Gr. Hydros=water, zoon=animal)

 These are mostly marine animals but some may also live in fresh water.
 They are chiefly colonial. Some forms may also appear solitary.
 Medusa stage is absent in few animals. Sometimes both polyp and medusa stages are
present in few animals of this class. Medusa is craspedote (presence of velum)
 Coelenteron of the polyps of this class is undivided
 Mesoglea is acellular
 Cnidocytes are restricted to the epidermis
 Gonads also occur in the epidermal region
 Their colonies are polymorphic with different types of zooids like gastrozooids (feeding
type), dactylozooids (defensive type) and gonozooids (reproductive type)
 Obelia
 Obelia is a genus of hydrozoans, a class of mainly marine and some freshwater animal 
species that have both polyp and medusa stages in their life cycle. Hydrozoa belongs to
the phylum Cnidaria, which are aquatic (mainly marine) organisms that are relatively
simple in structure with a diameter around 1mm. [1] There are currently 120 known
species, with more to be discovered. [2] These species are grouped into three broad
categories: O. bidentata, O. dichotoma, and O. geniculata. O. longissima was later
accepted as a legitimate species, but taxonomy regarding the entire genus is debated
over.[2]
 Obelia is also called sea fur.[3]
 Obelia has a worldwide distribution except the high-Arctic and Antarctic seas. [4] and a
stage of Obelia species are common in coastal and offshore plankton around the world.
[5]
 Obelia are usually found no deeper than 200 metres (660 ft) from the water's surface,
growing in intertidal rock pools and at the extreme low water of spring tides.
 The polyp colony reproduces asexually. During this stage of life, Obelia are
confined to substrate surfaces. In mature colonies there are individual 
hydranths called gastrozooids, which can be found expanded or contracted,
to aid in the growth of this organism by feeding. The reproductive polyp 
gonozooids have medusa buds. These medusa buds differentiate Obelia from
others in the family Campanulariidae because development begins from a bud
within the gonotheca. Eventually the buds are lost, and subsequent
development shares resemblances with other hydranths. Other hydranths are
specialized for defense. The main stalky body of the colony is composed of
a coenosarc, which is covered by a protective perisarc.
 polyp

 The hydroid form is usually colonial, with multiple polyps connected by

tubelike hydrocauli. The hollow cavity in the middle of the polyp extends into
the associated hydrocaulus, so that all the individuals of the colony are
intimately connected. Where the hydrocaulus runs along the substrate, it
forms a horizontal root-like stolon that anchors the colony to the bottom.
Medusa

 The medusae of hydrozoans are smaller than those of typical jellyfish, ranging from 0.5 to
6 cm (0.20 to 2.36 in) in diameter. Although most hydrozoans have a medusoid stage, this is
not always free-living and in many species exists solely as a sexually reproducing bud on the
surface of the hydroid colony. Sometimes, these medusoid buds may be so degenerated as to
entirely lack tentacles or mouths, essentially consisting of an isolated gonad.[2]
 The body consists of a dome-like umbrella ringed by tentacles. A tube-like structure hangs
down from the centre of the umbrella and includes the mouth at its tip. Most hydrozoan
medusae have just four tentacles, although a number of exceptions exist. Stinging cells are
found on the tentacles and around the mouth.
 The mouth leads into a central stomach cavity. Four radial canals connect the stomach to an
additional, circular canal running around the base of the bell, just above the tentacles.
Striated muscle fibres also line the rim of the bell, allowing the animal to move along by
alternately contracting and relaxing its body. An additional shelf of tissue lies just inside the
rim, narrowing the aperture at the base of the umbrella, and thereby increasing the force of
the expelled jet of water.[2]
 Gonionemus is a genus of hydrozoans that uses adhesive discs near the
middle of each tentacle to attach to eelgrass, sea lettuce, or various types of 
algae instead of swimming. They are small (bell diameter to 25 mm) and hard
to see when hanging onto swaying seaweed. Nevertheless, they are capable of
swimming when necessary. The bell is transparent, revealing the four orange
to yellowish-tan gonads that lie along most of the length of the four radial
canals. The pale yellow manubrium has four short, frilly lips. Up to 80 
tentacles line the bell margin, with about an equal number of statocysts. 
Copepods are a favored prey.
 This marine hydrozoan is common in warmer waters. The conspicuous stage in
the dimorphic lifecycle is the small medusa. The polypoid stage is present as
a tiny, solitary polyp which feeds on protozoans and other small plants and
animals. The polyp stage closely resembles Hydra.
 The medusae are active swimmers that propel themselves upward in the water column by rhythmic
pulsations of the bell. Upon reaching the surface, the bell relaxes, the tentacles become fully
extended, and any small fish or crustaceans encountered as the medusae slowly drift toward the
bottom are ensnared. Occasionally, the medusae use their adhesive pads to attach to seaweed or
other objects near the bottom, extend their tentacles, and wait for prey to bump into them.
 The manubrium hangs down from the center of the subrellum. It bears the cross-shaped mouth and
the four short oral lobes which grip the food. Digestion begins in the center of the manubrium,
which communicates with the four radial canals and the ring canal. The velum is well-developed
and used in swimming. Having a velum is characteristic of the hydrozoan medusae.
 The gonads are four yellowish structures embedded in the surface of the epidermis beneath the
radial canals. The ovaries are more granular in appearance than the testes (sexes are separate).
The gametes are shed into the sea, and the zygotes develop into ciliated planular larvae which grow
into minute polyps. These polyps can bud off other polyps or medusae. The tentacles of the
medusae are hollow and connected to the exumbrellar surface by a tentacular bulb where
cnidoblasts are formed.
hydra
 Hydra, genus of invertebrate freshwater animals of the
class Hydrozoa (phylum Cnidaria). The body of such an organism consists of a
thin, usually translucent tube that measures up to about 30 millimetres (1.2
inches) long.
 The Portuguese man-of-war is a floating hydrozoan. It is actually a colony
consisting of four types of polyps: a pneumatophore, or float; dactylozooids,
or tentacles; gastrozooids, or feeding zooids; and gonozooids which produce
gametes for reproduction. Cnidocytes (stinging cells) are located in the
tentacles. Their action is based on their individual osmotic and hydrostatic
pressure. Sensory cells are numerous and are located in the epidermis of the
tentacles and the region around the mouths. Generally, the sensory cells are
receptors for touch and temperature.
 The stinging cells, or cnidocytes, are the characteristic food-getting
mechanisms of jellyfish and their close relatives. P. physalis has two sizes of
cnidocytes, some small and others are large. These cells retain their potency
long after an individual has been washed up along the shore, as many hikers
along beaches have discovered to their dismay and discomfort.
Scyphozoa

 Class II: Scyphozoa (Gr. skyphos=cup, zoon=animal)

 All the animals belonging to this class are marine in nature
 Medusa stage is predominant in this class. Medusa is acraspedote (No velum)
 Mouth is surrounded by four oral arms.
 Mesoglea is cellular and contains amoebocytes
 Cnidocytes occur in the epidermis and also in the gastrodermis region
 Gonads occur in the gastrodermal region.
 Polyps are solitary or may also exist in colonies. Polyp stage is syphistoma (body is
divided by septa). This syphistoma produces juvenile medusa called as ephyrae by
the process of strobilation. Finally this ephyra grows into the sexual adult medusa.
 This class includes Jelly fis
aurelia

 In the jellyfish, a mouth opening, surrounded by tentacles bearing nematocysts, is present on

the underside of the animal. Scyphozoans live most of their life cycle as free-swimming,
solitary carnivores. The mouth leads to the gastrovascular cavity, which may be sectioned into
four interconnected sacs, called diverticuli. In some species, the digestive system may be
further branched into radial canals. Like the septa in anthozoans, the branched gastrovascular
cells serves to increase the surface area for nutrient absorption and diffusion; thus, more cells
are in direct contact with the nutrients in the gastrovascular cavity.
 In scyphozoans, nerve cells are scattered over the entire body. Neurons may even be present
in clusters called rhopalia. These animals possess a ring of muscles lining the dome of the
body, which provides the contractile force required to swim through water. Scyphozoans are
dioecious animals, having separate sexes. The gonads are formed from the gastrodermis with
gametes expelled through the mouth. Planula larvae are formed by external fertilization; they
settle on a substratum in a polypoid form known as scyphistoma. These forms may produce
additional polyps by budding or may transform into the medusoid form. The life cycle of these
animals can be described as polymorphic because they exhibit both a medusal and polypoid
body plan at some point.
cubozoa

 Box jellyfish (class Cubozoa) are cnidarian invertebrates distinguished by

their box-like (i.e. cube-shaped) body.[

 Some species of box jellyfish produce potent venom delivered by contact with

their tentacles. Stings from some species, including Chironex fleckeri, 
Carukia barnesi, Malo kingi, and a few others, are extremely painful and
often fatal to humans
 Reproduction
 Asexual reproduction allows for larger numbers of individual offspring to be produced
more quickly with less energy expenditure as compared to sexual reproduction; in
stable marine environments this is a reliable, efficient and effective means of
reproduction. However, this lack of genetic diversity in offspring could collapse an
entire population of genetically identical animals if environmental pressures were to
swing too far from tolerable conditions. On the other hand, rapid rates of asexual
reproduction allows for faster responses to environmental pressures as they are
occurring and could raise the rate of survival if individual offspring develop genetic
mutations during mitosis.
 During sexual reproduction, sea anemones release genetic material (gametes) through
the oral disk. With many species of sea anemones, genetic material from two or more
distinct species are released into the water whereby sperm and egg will connect with
the possibility of producing a genetically different and unique offspring from both
parents. The genetic differences among multiple offspring increases the probability of
survival.
 The method of reproduction typically observed by aquarium hobbyists in the tank is
known as fission, a form of asexual reproduction. Fission (or binary fission) is when an
organism splits into 2 separate individuals. It is believed that when an anemone
reaches a certain size the likelihood of fission increases; it is also believed that
environmental stressors may increase the chances for fission
aurelia

 jellyfish, any planktonic marine member of the class Scyphozoa (phylum

Cnidaria), a group of invertebrate animals composed of about 200 described
species, or of the class Cubozoa (approximately 20 species). The term is also
frequently applied to certain other cnidarians (such as members of the class
Hydrozoa) that have a medusoid (bell- or saucer-shaped) body form, as, for
example, the hydromedusae and the siphonophores (including the Portuguese
man-of-war). Unrelated forms such as comb jellies (phylum Ctenophora) and
salps (phylum Chordata) are also referred to as jellyfish. Scyphozoan jellyfish
can be divided into two types, those that are free-swimming medusae and
those that are sessile (i.e., stem animals that are attached to seaweed and
other objects by a stalk). The sessile polyplike forms constitute the order
Stauromedusae.
 Free-swimming scyphozoan jellyfish occur in all oceans and include the familiar
disk-shaped animals that are often found drifting along the shoreline. Most live
for only a few weeks, but some are known to survive a year or longer. The
bodies of most range in size from about 2 to 40 cm (1 to 16 inches) in diameter;
some species are considerably larger, however, with diameters of up to 2
metres (6.6 feet). Scyphozoan medusae consist of almost 99 percent water as a
result of the composition of the jelly that forms the bulk in nearly all species.
Most feed on copepods, fish larvae, and other small animals that they catch in
their tentacles, which have stinging cells (nematocysts). Some, however, simply
suspension feed, extracting minute animals and algae (phytoplankton) from the
water. Like all cnidarians, their bodies are made up of two cellular layers, the
ectoderm and the endoderm, between which lies the gelatinous mesoglea. In
jellyfish the transparent mesoglea layer is quite thick.
 Jellyfish reproduce both sexually and asexually. One generation (the medusa)
reproduces sexually and the next generation (the polyp) reproduces
asexually.
 1) The Egg – Stage 1 –
 During the time of dusk, large groups of jellyfishes gather and start spawning.
During this process, jellyfishes release large amounts of sperm and eggs into
the ocean. The fertilized eggs float in the ocean.
 2) Planula Larvae – Stage 2 –
 The fertilized eggs grow in a planktonic spore called the planula. After some
time, the eggs hatch and planula larvae emerge from the female’s mouth. A
planula is tiny and oval-shaped with minute hair called cilia that line outside
the body of larva. The planula larva floats in the water, if not eaten by
intriguing predators. After a while, the planula larvae swim down and settle
on the underlying surface to develop into a polyp. The polyp is the next stage
after planula.
 3) Polyp (Scyphistoma) – Stage 3 –
 When the planula settles down, it attaches its body to a hard surface and develops into a
polyp. A polyp is also known as Scyphistoma, which has a cylindrical structure. A polyp’s
base has a disc to aid in attaching to surfaces and mouth on top with tentacles around it.
Depending on the species, the polyps can be in this stage for a long period. Since the polyp
has a fully developed digestive system and one part of polyp is attached, it spends most of
its time feeding. The polyp forms hybrid colonies in which the polyps are linked together
through feeding tubes. Here they enter the next stage of their life cycle called medusa.
 4) Medusa – Stage 4 –
 The process through which new medusas are formed is called strobilation. In this process,
the end of Scyphistoma metamorphosis into an ‘ephyra’, which is called immature medusa.
It eventually detaches and swims away. Depending upon the species, a polyp is able to
produce one or several ephyrae, at once with many intervals. The free-swimming ephyrae
develop and grow larger in size and gradually transform into an adult jellyfish.
Anthozoa

 Class III: Anthozoa (Gr. anthos=flower, zoon=animal)

 All the animals of this class are marine
 They may be solitary or colonial
 All are sedentary polyploid forms. The medusa stage is absent
 Mouth is oval and is surrounded by a whorl of tentacles resembling a flower like
structure. Hence the name of the class.
 The mouth leads into tubular pharynx called stomodaeum that in turn opens into
coelenteron. Coelenteron is divided into radial compartments by vertical septa
called as mesenteries.
 Cnidocytes occur in epidermal as well as gastrodermal region
 Gonads occur in the gastrodermis.
Sea anemone
 The mouth of a sea anemone is surrounded by tentacles that bear cnidocytes. They have slit-like
mouth openings and a pharynx, which is the muscular part of the digestive system that serves to
ingest as well as egest food. It may extend for up to two-thirds the length of the body before
opening into the gastrovascular cavity. This cavity is divided into several chambers by longitudinal
septa called mesenteries. Each mesentery consists of one ectodermal and one endodermal cell layer
with the mesoglea sandwiched in between. Mesenteries do not divide the gastrovascular cavity
completely; the smaller cavities coalesce at the pharyngeal opening. The adaptive benefit of the
mesenteries appears to be an increase in surface area for absorption of nutrients and gas exchange.
 Sea anemones feed on small fish and shrimp, usually by immobilizing their prey using the cnidocytes.
Some sea anemones establish a mutualistic relationship with hermit crabs by attaching to the crab’s
shell. In this relationship, the anemone gets food particles from prey caught by the crab, while the
crab is protected from the predators by the stinging cells of the anemone. Anemone fish, or
clownfish, are able to live in the anemone since they are immune to the toxins contained within the
nematocysts. Another type of anthozoan that forms an important mutualistic relationship is reef
building coral. These hermatypic corals rely on a symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae. The
coral gains photosynthetic capability, while the zooxanthellae benefit by using nitrogenous waste
and carbon dioxide produced by the cnidarian host.
 Anthozoans remain polypoid throughout their lives. They can reproduce asexually by budding or
fragmentation, or sexually by producing gametes. Both gametes are produced by the polyp, which
can fuse to give rise to a free-swimming planula larva. The larva settles on a suitable substratum and
develops into a sessile polyp.
corals

 Coral reefs are the colonies of tiny living creatures that are found in oceans.
They are the underwater structures that are formed of coral polyps that are
held together by calcium carbonate. Coral reefs are also regarded as the
tropical rainforest of the sea and occupy just 0.1% of the ocean’s surface but
are home to 25% of marine species. They are usually found in shallow areas at
a depth less than 150 feet. However, some coral reefs extend even deeper,
up to about 450 feet.
 They protect coastlines from the damaging effects of wave action and tropical storms.
 They provide habitats and shelter for many marine organisms. 
 They are the source of nitrogen and other essential nutrients for marine food chains. 
 They assist in carbon and nitrogen-fixing. 
 They help with nutrient recycling.
 The study of coral reefs is essential for scientifically testable records of climatic events over
the past million years.
 The fishing industry depends also on coral reefs. Many fish spawn there, and juvenile fish
spend time there before making their way to the open sea. The Great Barrier Reef generates
more than 1.5 billion dollars annually for the Australian economy from fishing and tourism. 
 Coral reefs are also key indicators of global ecosystem health. They serve as an early warning
sign of what may happen to other less sensitive systems, such as river deltas if climate
change is not urgently addressed
Ctenophor

 a is a phylum of exclusively marine invertebrates. Ctenophora means “comb-

bearing”. They are commonly known as comb jellies or sea walnuts. The
distinguishing feature of the phylum is the presence of comb plates with cilia
that are used for locomotion.
 They are radially symmetrical and diploblastic. The body of ctenophores is
more complex than sponges but less complex compared to bilaterians. Like
cnidarians, they also exhibit tissue level of organisation. They show
bioluminescence
 According to body forms and characteristics, ctenophores are subdivided into two classes and various orders.
 The phylum Ctenophora is subdivided into two classes depending on the presence or absence of tentacles.
 Class 1: Tentaculata – having tentacles
 Class 2: Nuda – without tentacles
 Class Nuda has only one order, Beroida.
 Beroids do not have feeding organs. Tentacles are absent in both young and adult stages. They have
macrocillia, finger-like processes present inside the mouth. These help in biting large prey.
 Class Tentaculata is subdivided into eight orders. E.g.
 Cydippida – Cydippids have rounded bodies like an egg. They have long tentacles.
 Lobata – Lobates have a pair of flattened lobes, which are muscular, cup-like extensions of the body. They
have smaller tentacles.
 Other body forms are Ganeshida, Platyctenida, Thalassocalycida and Cestida.
 Some of the common features and important characteristics of the phylum Ctenophora are following:
 They are free-living marine organisms.
 They are diploblastic, i.e. possess two embryonic layers, ectoderm and endoderm. Mesoglea
is present between the ectoderm and endoderm, which is not well differentiated.
 They are acoelomates, i.e. do not have a body cavity.
 Ctenophores are radially symmetrical.
 They have a tissue level of body organisation.
 Ciliated comb plates are the locomotory organs. It has a group of cilia that helps in
locomotion. They possess mostly eight rows of comb plates. They are the largest single
animals using cilia for locomotion. Cilia are arranged in comb-like bands known as “ctenes”.
 The size ranges from 1 mm to 1.5 m in size.
 Most ctenophores have colloblasts to capture prey. Colloblasts are like cnidoblasts in
cnidarians. They are present on tentacles and are discharged to capture prey.
 Colloblasts consist of collocytes, which have a coiled spiral filament. Colloblast has adhesive,
which sticks to the prey, unlike cnidoblasts that have stinging capsules.
 Sensory cells are present in the outer epidermis. They secrete mucus and provide protection.
 Interstitial cells are also present in the outer epidermis. They can transform into other cell types.
 The nerve net is present in the inner epidermis. It also contains myoepithelial cells, which work like
muscles.
 The internal cavity is formed by the mouth, pharynx and internal canals. Cilia is present in the
mouth and pharynx. The cavity is lined by the gastrodermis internally.
 The gastrodermis contains nutritive cells, germ cells and photocytes, which store food, produce egg
or sperm and are responsible for the bioluminescence, respectively. Ciliated cells in the
gastrodermis are responsible for water circulation in the canals and remove wastes.
 Digestion occurs extracellularly as well as intracellularly.
 They do not possess a brain or the nervous system. They have a nerve net, which is found around
the mouth region and more concentrated in the comb rows and tentacles.
 It contains a statocyst in the aboral region, situated opposite the mouth. It has a sensory function.
It is a balancing organ and helps the organism in swimming.
 They are bisexual. Sexes are not separate.
 Ctenophores reproduce sexually. Fertilisation occurs outside the body. Development is indirect.
 Some produce sperms and eggs at the same time and some at different times.
 Platyctenids also reproduce by fragmentation. They show internal fertilisation and eggs remain in
the brood chambers until hatched.
 Most species show regeneration of damaged tissues.
 They show bioluminescence, i.e. emit light.
Pleurobrachia 

 Pleurobrachia is a common genus of Ctenophora(a exclusively marine phylum). Along

with the genus Hormiphora,[1] it generally has the common name sea gooseberry. It
contains the following species:

 sea gooseberries are elliptical in shape with two long tentacles protruding from each
side. These tentacles often measure up to 15 cm in length and, when the animal is not
swimming, they hang downward. Several sticky branches lie along each tentacle. Eight
comb rows, comprised of fused cilia, run nearly the entire length of the body, from
the mouth to the opening at the opposite end of the body. These combs are
responsible for propulsion via a beating mechanism and also bend, refracting light and
giving the illusion of bioluminescence. Sea gooseberries are colorless or transparent;
their tentacles and organs, however, may be colored (most often pink, white, yellow,
or orange-brown) and they often have a purple blotch near the pharynx. They grow up
to 1.5 cm in diameter, with a slightly greater length.
Origin of cnidria

 The exact relationships between the different cnidarian groups are unknown. Among theories
proposed on the evolution of the phylum Cnidaria, most treat the radial symmetry and tissue
level of organization as evidence that the group is primitive (that is, it evolved before the
evolution of bilateral symmetry) and hold that the medusa is the original body form, being the
sexually reproductive phase of the life cycle. Another theory is that the original cnidarian was
a planula-like organism that preceded both polyp and medusa. In either case, Hydrozoa is
considered to be the most ancient of cnidarian classes, and Trachylina is thought to be the
most primitive extant order of that group. An alternative view is that anthozoans are the stem
of the phylum, which evolved from bilateral flatworms and is secondarily simplified. A 
corollary to this theory is that the polyp is the ancestral body form.
 Speculations about the origin of the phylum are not easily resolved, for preservable skeletal
structures developed relatively late in cnidarian evolution. The oldest fossilized cnidarians
were soft-bodied. Representatives of all four modern classes have been identified in Ediacaran
fauna of the Precambrian Period (that is, those appearing between about 635 million and 541
million years ago) known from more than 20 sites worldwide. As much as 70 percent of
Ediacaran species have been considered to be cnidarians.
 Curiously, there are few fossil cnidarians of the Cambrian Period (541 million to
485.4 million years ago). The Conulariida, which existed from the Cambrian Period
to the Triassic Period (251.9 million to 201.3 million years ago), are considered by
some scientists to be skeletal remains of scyphopolyps, either ancestral to the
coronates or without modern derivatives. Presumed fossil sea anemones are found
in the lower Cambrian System. Colonies of Stromatoporoidea, considered to be an
order of the class Hydrozoa that extended from the mid-Cambrian Period to the 
Cretaceous Period (about 145 million to 66 million years ago), produced massive
skeletons. Although there were two groups of Paleozoic corals, neither of which
has modern descendants, they were not great reef-builders during that era.
Scleractinians arose in the mid-Triassic Period; blue corals, gorgonians, millepores,
and hydrocorals have records from the Jurassic Period (201.3 million to 145.0
million years ago) or the Cretaceous Period to the present. Most other cnidarians
are known only from the Holocene Epoch (within the last 11,700 years).