FUNDAMENTAL OF

SPORTS BIOMECHANICS
(SPS 260)
SKELETAL SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
 Living bone is an extremely dynamic tissue that is
continually modeled and remodeled by the forces
acting on it.

 Bone fulfills two (2) important mechanical

functions for human being.
 To provides a rigid skeletal framework that supports
& protects other body tissues.
 Forms a system of rigid levers that can be moved by
forces from the attaching muscles.
COMPOSITION & STRUCTURE OF
BONE TISSUE
 Material Constituents
 Structural Organization
 Types of Bones
Material Constituents
Material Constituents

 The major building blocks of bone are calcium

carbonate, calcium phosphate, collagen and water

 The relative percentages of these materials vary

with the age & health of the bone.
Material Constituents
 Calcium carbonate & calcium phosphate
generally constitute approximately 60% to 70% of
bone weight.
 These minerals give bone its stiffness & are the
primary determiners of its compressive strength.
 Stiffness – the ratio of stress to strain in a loaded material;
that is, the stress divided by the relative amount of change
in the structure’s shape.
 Compressive strength – ability to resist pressing or
squeezing force.
Material Constituents
 Other minerals, including magnesium, sodium, &
fluoride, also vital structural & metabolic role in
bone growth & development.

 Collagen is a protein that provides bone with

flexibility & contributes to its tensile strength.
 Tensile strength- ability to resist pulling or stretching
force.
Material Constituents
 Water content of bone makes up approximately
25% to 30% of the total bone weight.

 The water present in bone tissue is an important

contributor to bone strength
 Provides transportation for nutrients and wastes
Other Material Constituents
 Protein
 contributes to flexibility, ability to deform, and
toughness (resistance to shock loading)

 Other minerals (non-mineralized), that have vital

structural and metabolic roles in bone growth and
development including:
 Magnesium
 Sodium
 Fluoride
Structural Organization
Structural Organization
 Some bones are more porous than others.
 Porous – containing pores or cavities.

 The more porous (cavity) bone, the smaller the

proportion of calcium phosphate and calcium
carbonate:
 less calcium phosphate
 less calcium carbonate
 greater the proportion of non-mineralized tissue
Structural Organization
 Bone tissue has been classified into two (2) categories
based on porosity.
 Cortical bone – compact mineralized connective tissue with low
porosity that is found in the shafts of long bones.
 Low porosity with 5% to 30% of non-mineralized tissue.
 a non-homogenous, anisotropic, viscoelastic, brittle material which
is weakest when loaded in tension

 Trabecular bone (spongy, cancellous) – less compact

mineralized connective tissue with high porosity that is found in
the ends of long bones and in the vertebrae.
 Relatively high porosity with 30% to greater than 90% of bone
volume occupied by non-mineralized tissue.
 the sponginess of the bone helps to absorb energy but gives a lower
strength than cortical bone
Structural Organization
 The function of a given bone determines its
structure.
 The shafts of the long bones are composed of strong
cortical bone.
 The relatively high trabecular bone content of the
vertebrae contributes to their shock absorbing
capability.

 Both cortical and trabecular bone are anisotropic

 Anisotropic – exhibit different strength & stiffness in
response to forces applied from different directions.
Structural of Cortical and
Trabecular Bone
( Trabecular bone )
( Cortical bone )
( Trabecular bone )

( Cortical bone )
Differences Between Types Of
Porous Bones
 Cortical Bone

 low porosity
 5-30% bone volume is non-mineralized tissue
 withstand greater stress but less strain before fracturing
 Trabecular Bone

 high porosity
 30 - >90% bone volume is non-mineralized tissue
 Trabeculae filled with marrow and fat
 withstand more strain (but less stress) before fracturing

What is Bone Strain???

The amount of deformation in the material relative to its original
length, is the strain.
 Structural Organization
 Bone is strongest in resisting compressive stress
and weakest in resisting shear stress.

Compression
Stress to Fracture

Tension

Shear
Bone Response to Stress
Similarities Between Types Of Porous Bones

 both cortical and trabecular bone are anisotropic(different according to

direction of measurement:anti-isotropy)
 bone function determines structure
 strongest at resisting compressive stress
 weakest at resisting shear stress
Types of Bone
Type of Bones
 The structures and shapes of the 206 bones of the
human body enable them to fulfill specific
functions

 The skeletal system is nominally subdivided into

the central or axial skeleton and the peripheral or
appendicular skeleton.
Type of Bones – Axial Skeleton

 Skull, vertebrae,
sternum, & ribs
Type of Bones – Appendicular skeleton

 Bones composing the

body appendages
 Such as bones of the upper and
lower limbs, shoulder, and hip
Type of Bones – Short bone

 Small, cubical skeletal structures, including the carpals and

tarsal

Tarsal Carpal
 Type of Bones – Flat bone
 Skeletal structures that are largely flat in shape serve as extensive flat areas for
muscle attachment
 Scapula (shoulder blade). The Sternum (breast bone), Cranium (skull), os
coxae (hip bone) Pelvis and Ribs

Scapula

Ribs

Sternum
Type of Bones – Irregular bone
 Skeletal structures of irregular shape
 protective layer of firm, flexible connective tissue over the articulating ends of long bones
 have different shapes to fulfill special function in the human body
 E.g. Sacrum, coccyx, maxilla, vertebra
Type of Bones – Long bone
 Skeletal structures consisting of a long shaft with bulbous ends
 occur mostly in the appendicular skeleton and function for weight-bearing and movement

 E.g. femur, tibia, humerus

humerus

tibia
Bone Growth & Development
BONE GROWTH &
DEVELOPMENT
 Begins early in fetal development, and living bone is
continually changing in composition & structure
during lifespan.

 Many of these changes represent normal growth &

maturation of bone.

 Recent research shows that heredity, lifestyle, and race

can also influence the quality of bone throughout life.
(Thomas WC Jr. Med Journal 1994)
BONE GROWTH &
DEVELOPMENT
 Longitudinal Growth
(LG)
 LG growth of a bone
occurs at the epiphyses
(growth center of a bone that produces
new bone tissue as part of the normal
growth process), or epiphyseal
plates.
 Most epiphyses close
around age 18, although
some may be present until
about age 25.
BONE GROWTH &
DEVELOPMENT
 Circumferential Growth
 Long bones grow in diameter throughout most of the lifespan,
although the most rapid bone growth occurs before adulthood.
 The internal layer of the periosteum builds concentric layers
of new bone tissue on top of the existing ones.
 Periosteum – double-layered membrane covering bone; muscle
tendons attach to the outside layer, and the internal layer is a site of
osteoblast activity.
 At the same time, bone is resorbed or eliminated around the
circumference of the medullary cavity, so that the diameter of
the cavity is continually enlarged
Cont..
BONE GROWTH &
DEVELOPMENT
 Circumferential Growth
BONE GROWTH &
DEVELOPMENT
 BONE GROWTH &
DEVELOPMENT
Bone Cells:
 Osteoblasts
 bone forming cells that synthesize Osteoblasts
and secrete (produce and discharge) process
unmineralized ground substance
 abundant in area of high metabolism
within bone, such as the periosteum
and bordering the medullary cavity
 Osteoclasts
 large multinuclear cells that Osteoclasts
enzymatically break down bone process
tissue, releasing calcium,
magnesium and other minerals to
the blood
 these cells are important in bone
growth, remodeling, and healing
BONE GROWTH &
DEVELOPMENT
 Adult Bone Development
 balance between osteoblast and osteoclast activity
 increase in age yields progressive decrease in collagen
and increase in bone brittleness especially in women:
 Peak bone mineral content: 25-28 yrs
 0.5%-1.0% loss per year following age 50 or after
menopause stage
 6.5% loss per year post-menopause for first 5-8 years
BONE GROWTH &
DEVELOPMENT
 Wolff’s Law
 indicates that bone strength increases and decreases as the
functional forces on the bone increase and decrease
 If loading on a particular bone increases, the bone will
remodel itself over time to become stronger to resist that
sort of loading
 Bone Growth and Remodeling @ Bone Resorption
(bone tissue is removed from the skeleton)
 bones continue to grow and remodel themselves
throughout life, changing size and shape to accommodate
the changing forces applied to the skeleton
  example: For children, femur becomes longer as they
grow
 Mechanical loading causes strain
 if strain is lower than remodeling threshold, then bone
remodeling occurs at bone that is close to marrow
Bone Growth and Modeling (produce bone forms)
 if strain is higher than modeling threshold, then bone
modeling occurs

Bone mineral density generally parallels body weight

body weight provides most constant mechanical stress
determined by stresses that produce strain on skeleton
Bone Hypertrophy(volume increase)

 An increase in bone density and mass due to

predominance of osteoblast (bone cells) activity

 Seen in response to regular physical activity

 Tennis players have muscular and bone hypertrophy in
playing arm

 The greater the habitual load, the more mineralization

of the bone
 also relates to amount of impact of activity or sport
Bone Atrophy(volume
decrease)

 A decrease in bone mass

resulting form a predominance Affect on astronauts
of osteoclast activity • overall cause is
 Accomplished via remodeling unknown
 Decreases in: • tend to have
• Bone calcium negative calcium
• Bone weight and strength loss

 Seen in bed-ridden patients,

sedentary elderly, and astronauts
Osteoporosis
 A disorder involving decreased bone mass and
strength with one or more resulting fractures
 Found in elderly:
 mostly in postmenopausal and elderly women
 causes more than 1/2 of fractures in women,
and 1/3 in men.
 Reasons:
 inactivity
 low dietary calcium levels
 reduction in circulating estrogens (The major
physiological effect of estrogen is to inhibit
bone resorption)
Bone Biopsies

Reproduced from J Bone Miner Res 2008;23:730-740 with permission of the American Society for Bone and
Mineral Research

Bone biopsies from women who have had a natural menopause

Osteoporosis
 Process of osteoporosis:
osteoporosis

 Begins as osteopenia (inadequate ossification

[osteoblast]-low mineral density)
 Becomes slightly osteopenic as people ages. This
reduction in mass occurs between the ages of 30 and
40, where osteoblast activity begins to decline while
osteoclast activity continues at previous level.
 Women loss about 8% of their skeletal mass every
decade, men deteriorate at about 3% per decade
 Bone Modeling and Remodeling
 Reduction of
Estrogen
hormones
resulted in
increased
activity of
OSTEOCLAS
T
Differences between healthy bone
and osteoporosis
Types of Osteoporosis
 Type I Osteoporosis
 postmenopausal osteoporosis
 affects about 40% of women over 50 years of age
 After menopause, bone resorption (breakdown)
outpaces the building of new bone

 Type II Osteoporosis
 age associated osteoporosis
 affects most women and men over 70 years of age
 Symptoms:
 painful, deforming and debilitating crush fractures of
vertebrae
 usually of lumbar vertebrae from weight bearing activity, which leads
to height loss
 estimated 26% of women over 50 suffer from these fractures

 Men have an increase in vertebral diameter with aging

 reduces compressive stress during weight bearing activities
 structural strength not reduced
 not known why same compensatory changes do not occur in
women
Female Athlete Triad
 Osteoporosis is the decrease in bone mass and
strength

 Eating disorders affect 1-10% of adolescent and

college-age women
 displayed in 62% female athletes
 mostly in endurance or appearance-related sports

 Amenorrhea is the cessation of the menses

(menstrual cycle)
Osteoporosis Treatment
1. Hormone replacement therapy

2. Estrogen deficiency damages bone

3. Increased dietary calcium

4. Lifestyle factors affect bone mineralization

5. Future use of pharmacologic agents
 May stimulate bone formation
 Low doses of growth factors to stimulate osteoblast
recruitment and promote bone formation

6. Engaging in regular physical activity

Common Bone Injuries
 A fracture is a distribution in the continuity of a
bone.
 The nature of the fracture depends on the direction,
magnitude, loading rate and duration of the
mechanical load.
 Fracture is classified as simple fracture and
compound fracture.
 Simple fracture occur when the bone ends remain
within the surrounding soft tissues.

 Compound fracture occur when one or both bone

ends protrude from the skin.
 When the loading rate is rapid, a fracture is called
comminuted containing multiple fragments.

 Avulsions are fractures caused by tensile loading in

which a tendon or ligament pulls a small chip of
bone away from the rest of the bone.
Simple Fracture Compound Fracture
frontal radiograph of the left
elbow reveals a fragment of bone
(yellow arrow) which has been
pulled from the lateral epicondyle
by the common extensor tendon
THE END OF CHAPTER
3
Question???

Thank You Class…