Bilingualism

and
Multilingualism
1. What is Bilingualism (and Multilingualism)
2. Is Bilingualism Good or Bad?
3. Types and Aspects of Bilingualism
4. Early development of Bilingualism
5. Later development of Bilingualism [The Unitary
Language Hypothesis & Separate Development Hypothesis]
6. Bilingualism and Cognition
7. BICS and CALP
8. Transfer Effect of L1 on L2 Learning
6 – 8 =Independent reading
*Bilingualism and Multilingualism apply:
* between different countries,
*within a country where there is more than one
prevalent/official language or lingua franca
and different vernacular languages,

*Some arguments against bilingualism arose:

 * Why not Bilingualism?
Arguments exist against early acquisition of the L2.

*Argument: Acquiring an L2 at an early age can be

harmful in two main respects:
*Linguistically: might slow down the acquisition of
the L1;
*Intellectually: might slow down the development
of thinking & cognitive abilities (Math & Reading).
*Secondly, criticism against early bilingualism
belongs to a long time ago where people still
thought differently about language acquisition as
a process,
*Previously century people knew little about
conceptualisation; rather experimented with
different teaching methods involving language
and intelligence – experiments were at a rather
naive level.
*Recent neurological research - growing interest in
how bilinguals represent different languages in the
brain.
*Central issues became the focus of research, i.e. :
Are different languages represented in the different
hemispheres of the brain?
*Some researchers report - right hemisphere of the
brain is more involved in bilinguals than in
monolinguals.
*Another idea, the right hemisphere plays a greater
role in learning an L2, even in adulthood.
*Thus, damage to the right side of the brain
results in language dysfunction, so the L2
must be located in the right hemisphere.
*Other studies have reported no difference in
lateral dominance for the two languages of a
bilingual.
*Conclusion: clear possibility that L2
sometimes locates in the right hemisphere
and sometimes not.
*One influence that determine hemisphere
location = age at which the L2 is learned.
 * DEFINING BILINGUALISM
*Bilingual = a person who can speak and
understand two completely different languages.
*‘Varieties’ of bilingualism exist -
Some can read a language fluently and write it well,
but cannot speak or understand the spoken
language significantly.

*Proficiency in a language is judged on aspects like

knowledge of syntax, vocabulary and
pronunciation.
*General agreement:
Reading & writing of a language not
essential to be classified as a bilingual.
knowing two dialects of the same
language = NOT a bilingual.
 * TYPES OF BILINGUALISM
Three types:
*Compound, Coordinate, Subordinate

Compound:
*conditions in early infancy equally favourable for both
languages,
*two parents both speak different languages,
*use their own languages in equal measures with
baby.
 * TYPES OF BILINGUALISM
Co-ordinate:
*conditions in infancy favour one language over the
other.
*Result: infant develops two independent lexical
systems, although meaning in the two languages
overlap.

Subordinate:
*when the L2 is acquired quite some time after the L1 -
remains dependent on the L1.
 * DEFINING MULTILINGUALISM
*Multilingualism: when more than two languages
are involved.
*Processes of acquisition and learning = are similar
to bilingualism - only involves more than 2
languages.

*Individual bilingualism/multilingualism –
Individual is proficient in two or more languages;

*Societal bilingualism/multilingualism –
Members of a society use two or more different
languages.
 * 3 ASPECTS OF BILINGUALISM
A. Storage
Are the two languages stored differently or separately in
the user’s mind?
*Possible evidence is based on the phenomenon of
code-switching possible evidence for separate storage.
When code=switching, bilinguals shift with very much ease from one
language to another.
However, there is evidence that the two lexicons are indeed linked,
or at least partly.
A language-dependent common underlying proficiency is like our
computers that have programmes to allow you to work in Excel, Word
and Power Point.

Figure: Common Underlying Proficiency Model (Taken from Baker,

2006, p. 169
B. Cross-linguistic influence

Does user’s knowledge of one language affect

performance in another?
* Constituents from one language are sometimes
introduced into an utterance involving the other;
called code-mixing.
* Transfer within a single utterance can occur at:
phonological, orthographic (spelling),
morphological, semantic and phrasal level.
*Using single words from the L1 in the L2 is called
borrowing,
E.G.:
*Adjust pronunciation and morphology of a word
when transferring from one language to another.
*Example: We lyangaed and drunk far too much last
night and now I am babalas.
 3. ASPECTS OF BILINGUALISM
C. Costs and benefits

Does being bilingual have positive/negative linguistic,

educational, cultural, affective or cognitive consequences?
*A balance theory suggests: Possessing two (or more)
languages makes high demands on working memory (aka
short-term memory - STM).
*Theorists thus suggest - increased demand on working
memory leads to decrease in proficiency in at least one of
the languages.
*Alternative view:
The language-dependent common controlling
operations in both languages underlies proficiency.

Recent research stresses positive outcome:

Bilinguals may benefit from:
*more flexible thought processes &
*heightened language awareness.
 *Two different hypotheses on Bilingualism:
1. The Unitary Language Hypothesis
*Infants start out with an undifferentiated lang. system.
*Then begin to distinguish between the 2 sets of data
by restricting each language to particular people,
situations and their own needs.
*Next, the infant distributes its vocabulary between 2
separate lexical systems and can translate words from
one language to the other.
*Finally, language becomes differentiated syntactically
with less mixing of the two languages.
2. Separate Development Hypothesis:

*Asserts - infant differentiates between the 2

languages from the start - mixing languages shows 2
incomplete systems operating in parallel.

Two conditions according to which a person may

become a bilingual:
a. Two languages can be acquired simultaneously,
OR
b. The two languages can be acquired in sequence
•Simultaneous bilingual acquisition is more common to
children, and
•follow similar path to that of L1 acquisition.
* No evidence that acquiring the language is delayed
when more than one language is involved, but
* early vocabulary levels perhaps slightly lower in
bilingual children.

First condition for bilingualism:

a. Situations where a child acquires more than one
language at the same time

i. Speakers (Parents) of the different languages use only

one language with the child – [1P -1L]
 1P -1L situation better –
acquisition may be faster; less mixing occurs.
ii. Speakers use 2 different languages with the child,
e.g. mother and father use both Oshiwambo and Otjiherero
with the child (1P – 2L).

*Children can be flexible – so, become bilingual in

both languages by age 3-4,
*Child in 1P – 1L situation ‘wins’ -
learns the
language faster than child in1P – 2L situation.
*Reason: Languages are used more consistently in
1P-1L situation.
*Children in 1P – 2L situation produce more mixed
language sentences.
*In time, they will overcome mixed input.
Second condition for bilingualism:
b. The two languages can be acquired in
sequence
* This type of bilingual learning can happen with
adults and children - the L2 learned in childhood
or after becoming an adult.
* There is much greater variation between
individuals in Sequential/Successive bilingualism.
* The time of L2 acquisition (during primary period/ before
puberty/in adulthood) possibly a factor.
i. In some cases the acquisition of the L2 is additive.
*Result: Person can use the two languages in parallel.
*L2 learner’s first language will not suffer when he/she
learns the L2.
*Both languages have the same power (socially and in
education).
ii. In others the effect may be subtractive - L2
replaces the L1 in some, many or all different domains
of use.
When the L2 is more powerful than the L1 - not a
positive situation
Common - Namibia - speakers almost “give up” own
languages = due to social & economic power given to
English.
*Immigrant may experience language
attrition/reduction when acquiring an L2 in a new
country . (L1 proficiency declines over the years in absence
of contact with speakers of his L1).
*The sequential bilingual situation – happens for a
child’s whose parents speak one language and the
community speaks another.
*Child starts to acquire the L1 first before being
introduced to the L2.
*Some acquisition of two languages = can be
simultaneous. The only difference is starting
times for introduction of each of the two languages
= i.e. sequential.
*Focus – on people who learn new languages as
adolescents / adults.

Two types of adult bilinguals:

*i. Balanced adult bilingual
• someone accepted as an L1 speaker in two
linguistic communities at roughly the same
social level;
• would have learned both languages before
puberty;
• makes an effort to maintain both languages.
(remember lang. attrition in immigrants)
i. Balanced adult bilingual cont….

• Child from a bilingual home = would be

balanced bilingual if using both languages on a
daily basis.
• Fully balanced bilingualism = actually very rare.
• We tend to prefer one language and regard it
as our L1.
Second type of adult bilinguals ….

ii. Those for whom one language is dominant

* Uses one language more frequently than the
other (necessarily the L1?);

* Bilinguals not always aware which language is

their dominant one,

* Even if dominant language is known, situation

may change if person’s circumstances of use
change, i.e. L2 used more in workplace.
Natural adult L2 acquisition process

*Adults approach L2 systematically;

*Try to formulate linguistic rules based on availability of
linguistic information from L1 and new L2.
*Adults learning an L2 show same type of errors found in
children learning their L1.
*Adults operate from solid foundation of L1, thus there are
more instances of L1 interference by adults learning an L2.
*Adults use L1 more often to bridge gaps they cannot fill by
generalisation within the L2.
*The L1 thus helps adult L2 learner, not interferes with the
L2.
 6. Bilingualism and Cognition

Research studies and findings on

Bilingualism or Multilingualism,
beneficial/detrimental

SELF-STUDY
Bilingualism or Multilingualism, beneficial/detrimental?
*Let’s consider:
1. Effects of bilingualism on
development of language:
*Important - learning / acquisition of L2 at an early age,
while still acquiring L1, will have an effect on acquisition
of L1.
* Concern (not illogical) – that bilingualism might somehow
retard L1 and L2.
*EG: a child raised with two languages might never really
learn either language as well as monolingual speakers of
those languages would.
*Some negative reports in this regard:
Negative reports

*Well-known, influential research study done in

Iowa, America (1930s).
*Pre-school Iowan monolingual English speaking
children and Hawaiian bilingual children were
compared.
*Main finding - bilingual children from Hawaii made
many more errors in English speech than did their
Iowan counterparts.
*Researcher concluded that bilingualism caused
retardation in language development.
Was inevitable to come up with the results
because of researcher’s way of defining errors.
Bias in the study & subsequent findings
concluded - Hawaiian children spoke a general
sort of English that was prevalent there.
Differed from the so-called ‘correct’ English
spoken by the children in Iowa.
Positive reports
*Canada - More sophisticated studies in comparing
linguistic skills of monolinguals and bilinguals (French
& English are both official languages).
*One long-term study (L1 English-speaking children in a
French school) found - by Grades 4 & 5, L2 French
skills of the English speaking learners, (incl. reading &
writing) were almost as good as those of L1 French-
speaking children.
*Importantly, was achieved at no loss to their English
L1 development, when compared to a group of
monolingual English-speaking children.
*Also, the bilingual English/French-speaking
children did better than the monolingual
English-speaking children on creativity tests.

*In many cases their Mathematics and Science

scores were also higher.
*Similar research has strengthened these
findings.
*No evidence that early bilingualism has a negative
effect on child’s language acquisition, whether on
the L1 or L2.
*Recent work shows some beneficial effects for early
bilingualism.
*Research in this field: Early bilingualism itself
doesn’t cause negative linguistic effects.
*The worst that can be said = research findings
concerning beneficial effects of bilingualism are
inconclusive or unconvincing!
*
2. Effects on the Development of Intelligence

Does learning an L2 at an early age, while still

acquiring the L1, have a negative effect on a
child’s intelligence, thinking ability, creativity or
cognitive areas like Mathematics?
Initially, burden of learning an additional
language was considered to have a negative
effect on the child’s abilities.
Negative effects – Bilingualism on Intelligence:

*Research studies were done (methodology was mostly

faulty).
*Employed English either as a direct measure of
intelligence or a medium of inquiry.
*As English was the participants’ L2, immigrants and
non-English speakers fared especially badly.
*1950s - psycholinguists began to consider that
knowledge of language was not a fair measure of
intelligence.
*Also realised - language content of the widely
used intelligence tests = culturally biased.

*Only recently considered possibility that

learning an L2 could have a positive effect on
intelligence
Positive Effects

*Knowledgeable views of language (1960s + 1970s),

deriving from theorists like Chomsky, greatly
improved the methodology and interpretation of
research studies.
*Scientist, Lambert (early 1960s) led the way.
Unexpectedly, study showed positive effects of
bilingualism on intelligence.
This has continued into the present time.
Impressive study compared monolingual and
bilingual young children (between 6 and 8
months) in different parts of the world.
When they were about 4 years old, results on
cognitive performance tests showed bilingual
children were superior to the monolingual
children – and, above all, they have also
acquired TWO languages.
Conclusions on the Effects of Bilingualism on
Intelligence

*No evidence that early bilingualism will harm

intellectual or cognitive development of a child.

Evidence that it may even benefit the child intellectually:

*Learners all over the world, using L2 confidently in their

social environment, still find it difficult to be successful in
school & in tertiary studies when they have to use their
L2.

*See Jim Cummins’ explanation in the next section.

*Cummins proposed a difference between conversational
competence (Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills -
BICS), and academically related language competence
(Cognitive Academic Literacy Proficiency - CALP).
*Fluency in BICS does not imply corresponding proficiency
in CALP.
*Surface fluency (BICS) = contextual supports and props
exist to help speaker / listener in a language situation.
For instance, face-to-face, context-embedded situations
provide non-verbal support such as fillers and gestures, to
secure understanding.
*In the BICS situation we can negotiate meaning by asking
for more explanation or for repetitions.
*CALP = is concerned with context-reduced
academic situations requiring higher-order thinking
skills (i.e. analysis, synthesis and evaluation).
*Language is thus disembedded or context-
reduced.
*Despite the concerns, distinction between BICS
and CALP helps explain the relative failure of many
L2 learners within the educational system.
Some criticism against the distinction between BICS
& CALP:

*Many scholars rejected underlying idea that we can put

language skills into separate compartments.
*Scholars also pointed out that interpersonal ability also
requires use of decontextualised language.
*Skills in and experience with oral communication are not
unrelated to academic success and literacy achievement.
*Literacy thus best seen as an extension of oral
communication.
 7. BICS and CALP
5. Cummins’ distinction between different types of
language uses downplays the wide range of important
ways language is used in academic environments,
including “everyday” or “conversational” uses of
English in academic tasks.
6. Furthermore, social applications of language can
also be extremely complex and demanding.
7. Scholars also argue - it is not really true that CALP
can be transferred to any language.
8. They also claim - literacy-related skills are rather
culture-specific and dependent on the type of literacy
schooling that is used in different cultures.
*It only paints a two-stage idea;
*Sequential nature of BICS first then CALP = a typical
route for L2 learning, but this order is not absolute -
there are exceptions;
*CALP relates rather to specific, traditional, school-
based literacy practices that can be tested;
*Oral language and interpersonal communication are
not necessarily less cognitively demanding than literate
language;
*School-based academic/cognitive language neither
represents universal higher-order cognitive skills, nor
all forms of literacy practice.
*Linguists agree - no one language is more complex overall
than another,
*Psycholinguists agree - no one language is easier to learn
than any other; nonetheless, not every pair of languages
can be expected to be acquired at the same time.
*For example, after learning English, learning French will
not be as difficult as learning Japanese. Differences
between English and French syntax are small compared
to the huge differences between that of English and
Japanese. This is also the case in similarities and
differences between the vocabularies.
*Conclusion: The greater the similarities between
two different languages (syntax and vocabulary), the
faster the rate of acquiring the two languages.
*Thus, it’s clear that our knowledge of our own L1
may facilitate the learning of an L2.
*Even when two languages are linguistically and
psycholinguistically very different, there will be much
facilitation between the L1 and the L2 learning.
*Regarding the importance of syntax and vocabulary,
correct syntax weighs more than correct
pronunciation.
*Briefly - the “double trouble” phenomenon
occurs when trying to learn two new languages at
the same time.
*When an English speaker learns French and
German at the same time, some French words
may pop up in his or her mind when he or she
wants to speak German and vice versa.
*But minds are able to sort out this confusion, as
we continue learning and using the new languages
we are acquiring!
END OF UNIT 10!!