Module I

Superposition theorem , Thevenin’s theorem,

Nortons’s theorem, Maximum power transfer theorem
Superposition Theorem

 Statement : In a linear bilateral network containing several sources ,

the current through or voltage across any branch in the network equals the
algebraic sum of the current or voltage across that element due to each
independent source acting alone.
 i.e. all other independent ideal voltage sources replaced by short circuits and all
other independent ideal current sources replaced by open circuits (non-ideal
sources are replaced by their internal resistances).
 Superposition Theorem : Procedure
 (i) Select one source in the circuit and replace all other ideal voltage sources
by short circuits and ideal current sources by open circuits.
 (ii) Determine the voltage across (or current through) the desired
element/branch due to single source selected in step (i).
 (iii) Repeat the above two steps for each of the remaining sources.
 (iv) Algebraically add all the voltages across (or currents through) the
element/branch under consideration.
  Find the current through 2Ω resistor using
superposition theorem. (Fig 1 )
 Solution :
 Step 1 : Considering the VS 48 V alone. (fig. 1a ) ( find the current through 2Ω Fig 1
resistor with 48V source acting alone. Hence replace the 24 V source by a short
circuit. )
 using current division rule ,

Fig 1 a
 Step 2 : Considering the VS 24 V alone. (fig. 1b ) (find the current
through 2Ω resistor with 24V source acting alone. Hence replace the
48 V source by a short circuit. )
 using current division rule,

 Step 3 Fig : 1b

 Finally, add the two currents considering their direction.


Limitations 

 This theorem is not applicable for measuring power but it

measures voltage and current
 It is used in linear circuits but not used in nonlinear
 This theorem is applied when the circuit must have above
one source
 Thevenin’s Theorem
 This provides a mathematical technique for replacing a given network,
as viewed from two output terminals, by a single voltage source with a
series resistance

RTH

VTH
 Thevenin’s theorem statement:
 Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source Vth in series with a resistor Rth,
where VTH is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals and RTH is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminal when the independent sources are turned off.
Sources turned off = replaced by its internal resistance

A
+
Linear two Linear circuit with A
terminal Voc = VTH all independent
circuit sources are turned RTH
_ off B
B

VS = Short circuit , CS = open circuit

 Explanation of Thevenin’s Theorem :

 Consider the circuit shown in Fig 1. Fig : 1

 (i) Finding Vth : Remove RL and find out open circuit voltage across terminal A
and B. ( Voc = Vth )
 (ii) Finding Rth. To find Rth, remove the load RL and replace the battery by a
short-circuit because its internal resistance is assumed zero.
 (iii) Redraw the circuit with Vth and Rth (called Equivalent Circuit of
Thevenin’s Theorem
)

Where,
VTH is the Thevenin’s equivalent voltage. It is an open
circuit voltage across the terminal AB known as load
terminal
Equivalent Circuit of Thevenin’s RTH is the Thevenin’s equivalent resistance, as seen from
Theorem the load terminals where all the sources are replaced by
their internal impedance
rL is the load resistance
 Methods of Finding Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
 There are two methods for finding a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. Based on
the type of sources that are present in the network,
 Method 1 :
 When only the sources of independent type are present.
• Step 1 − Remove the RL from terminal A and B of the given circuit .
• Step 2 − Find Thevenin’s voltage VTh across the open terminals of the circuit.
• Step 3 − Find Thevenin’s resistance RTh across the open terminals of the
circuit by eliminating the independent sources present in it.
• Step 4 − Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit by connecting a Thevenin’s
voltage VTh in series with a Thevenin’s resistance RTh.
 Method 2
When the sources of both independent type and dependent type are
present.
Step 1 − Consider the circuit diagram by removing RL from terminal A and B.
Step 2 − Find Thevenin’s voltage VTh across the open terminals of the circuit..
Step 3 − Find the short circuit current ISC by shorting the two opened terminals of the
circuit.
Step 4 − Find Thevenin’s resistance RTh by using the following formula.

Step 5 − Draw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit by connecting a Thevenin’s

voltage VTh  in series with a Thevenin’s resistance RTh.
 Norton’s Theorem

 Norton’s theorem is similar to Thevenin’s theorem.

 Norton’s theorem states that a linear two terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source IN in parallel with resistor RN, where
IN is the short circuit current through the terminals and RN is the input or equivalent
resistance at the terminals when the independent sources are turned off.
 Steps of Norton’s Theorem : Method 1

 When only the sources of independent type are present.

• Step 1 − Remove the RL from terminal A and B.
• Step 2 − Find the Norton’s current IN by shorting the two opened terminals of
the circuit. (IN = short circuit current through the terminal)
• Step 3 − Find the Norton’s resistance RN across the open terminals of the
circuit considered in Step1 by eliminating the independent sources present in it.
Norton’s resistance RN will be same as that of Thevenin’s resistance RTh.
• Step 4 − Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit by connecting a Norton’s
current IN in parallel with Norton’s resistance RN.
 Method 2

 When the sources of both independent type and dependent type are

present.
• Step 1 − Remove the RL from terminal A and B.
• Step 2 − Find the open circuit voltage VOC across the open terminals of the above
circuit.
• Step 3 − Find the Norton’s current IN by shorting the two opened terminals of the
above circuit.
• Step 4 − Find Norton’s resistance RN by using the following formula.

• Step 5 − Draw the Norton’s equivalent circuit by connecting a Norton’s current I N in
parallel with Norton’s resistance RN
 Explanation of Norton’s Theorem
A
 Consider a circuit diagram given below,
 Finding IN = Remove load and short the terminal
A and B.
B
Fig : Given circuit

Fig: Finding IN IN = Isc

 Finding RN = Remove load , independent
sources are deactivated , then find equivalent
resistance between terminal A and B (load
terminal )

Fig : Finding RN

Norton’s equivalent circuit resembles a practical current

source. Hence, it is having a current source in parallel
with a resistor.
Norton’s equivalent circuit
 Method 3
 This is an alternate method for finding
a Norton’s equivalent circuit.
• Step 1 − Find a Thevenin’s
equivalent circuit between the desired
two terminals.
• Step 2 − Apply source
transformation technique to the
above Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
• We will get the Norton’s equivalent
circuit. Here,
 Maximum power transfer theorem
 This theorem deals with transfer of maximum power from a source to load.
 This theorem is particularly useful for analysing communication networks.
 In the case of electronic and communication networks, very often, the goal is
either to receive or transmit maximum power.
 This theorem is used in speaker for transferring the maximum power from an
amplifier to the speaker.
 This theorem is very useful in situations where transfer of maximum power is
desirable.
 The Thevenin’s equivalent is useful in finding the maximum power a linear
circuit can deliver to a load.
Explanation of Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
 Consider a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with voltage source VTH of internal
resistance RTH delivering power to a variable load RL.

……………..(i)

In order to find the value of RL for which the value of P is maximum,

differentiate eq. (i) w.r.t. RL and set the result equal to zero.
 Condition for Maximum Power Transfer

For maximum or minimum, first derivative will be zero. So, differentiate

Equation (i) w.r.t.  RL and make it equal to zero.
Maximum power transfer theorem statement :

 It states that,
 A resistive load, being connected to a network, receives maximum power
when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance (Thevenin’s
equivalent resistance) of the source network as seen from the load
terminal.
The value of Maximum Power Transfer
Substitute RL=RTh &PL=PL,Max in Equation (i) 

Therefore, the maximum amount of power transferred to

the load is
 Efficiency of Maximum Power Transfer

…… (ii)

The amount of power generated by the source is

Substitute the value of Ps, PL,max in equation (ii)

Therefore, the efficiency of maximum power transfer is 50 %.

Example:

Where:
  RS = 25Ω
  RL is variable between 0 – 100Ω
  VS = 100v