INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

A PROJECT REPORT SUBMITED TO VNR VJIET

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF
DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
SUBMITTED BY
M.MANIDEEP (18253-C-012)

UNDER THE GUIDANCE

OF V.MANOHAR

2nd SHIFT POLYTECHNIC DEPARTMENT

OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
VNR VIGNAN JYOTHI INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND
TECHNOLOGY (AUTONOMOUS) ACCREDITED BY NAAC WITH ‘A’ GRADE,
NBA HYDERABAD-500090 -TS, INDIA
 2nd SHIFT POLYTECHNIC
VALLURIPALLI NAGESHWAR RAO VIGNAN JYOTHI INSTITUTE OF
ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project entitled “INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT” has been
carried out in Hyderabad .
STUDENT NAME PIN.NO
M.MANIDEEP 18253-C-012

In partial fulfillment for the award of DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING to the STATE
BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING, Hyderabad at 2nd SHIFT
POLYTECHNIC VNR Vignana Jyothi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Hyderabad
during the Academic year 2016-2017
PROJECT GUIDE
G.K ABHINANDANA (LECTURER)
Dept. of Civil Engineering
VNR VJIET
Hyderabad

EXTERNAL EXAMINER
 DECLARATION
We the Undersigned declare that the Project Report entitled “INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
REPORT” written and submitted by us in an original work done under the guidance of
N.SUBBA REDDY and K.NAVEEN. The matter here in is not reproduced from any other
source.

M.MANIDEEP (18253-C-012)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Our sincere thanks to G.K.ABHINADHANA, Lecturer Department of Civil Engineering,
VNR VJIET, who motivated us during project work, guiding us throughout inspite of his
schedules and commitments.

Our sincere thanks to V. MANOHAR, Lecturer Head of the Department of Diploma Civil
Engineering, VNR VJIET & all the faculty of the Department for the Encouragement and the
guidance provided.

We extend our sincere thanks to Dr.B.Satyanarayana, Vice Principal, 2nd shift

polytechnic, VNR VJIET, Hyderabad, for his help & co-operation in providing necessary
support for project work.

A special note of thanks to Dr. C.D.NAIDU, Principal, VNRVJIET and management of

VNR VJIET for providing facilities for project work.

We sincerely thank all of them who have helped me either directly or indirectly during the
completion of the project tenure.
 ABSTRACT
Necessity is the main reason to invent due to day to day increase of population and
migration of people from rural areas to urban areas results in scarcity of land in the cities.

As engineers we have to accommodate more number of people in the less space with their
minimum requirements. The idea was developed to grow in vertical manner. The idea derived as
the apartment system and sky scrapers.

Functional designing of the building has become more important and requirements of
buildings vary from building to buildings. Hence it is essential to finalize the program with
reference to the people who will be using the buildings. So it is necessary that every Civil
Engineer knows the basic principles involved in design of R.C.C structures.
ENGINEERING STRUCTURE AND STRUCTURAL DESIGN:

An engineering structure is an assembly of members or elements transferring the load

Or resisting external actions and providing a form to serve the desired function.

The structural design is a science and art of designing with economy and elegance. A durable
structure, which can safely carry the forces and can serve the desired function satisfactorily during
its expected service life span.

STAGES IN STRUCTURAL PLANNING:

Once the type of structure is finalized and planned, design of structure involves the
corresponding stages in the planning.

1. Design of
2. Column Design
3. of Beam Design
4. of slabs Design
5. of lintels design
of footings
 CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION.

1. Introduction to building in general.

2. Limit state method.
3. Process of construction .
1.31 Loads on structure .
2. GENRAL SPECIFICATIONS.
3. ABRIVATIONS.

4. STEEL.

1. Alloys of steel.
2. Calculation of steel.
3. Pictures of types of steel bars.
5.CEMENT

4. Defination
5. Types of cement.
6. Calculations of Cement.
7. Mixing ratio.

6. SPECIFICATIONS.

7. PLINTH AREA.
8. FOOTING DETAILS .
1. Type of footings.
2. Design of footing .
9.3 Layouts of footing and columns.
10. SOIL IN GENRAL.

1. Type soil.
2. Load bearing values of soil for footing.
11. STARTERS.

12. COLUMNS.

1. Types of RCC columns.

2. Types of RCC columns based on moments.
3.Construction methods of RCC columns.
4.Column reinforcement.
13. SUTTERING WORK/FORM WORK.

14. BEAMS.

15. Types of beams.

16.Beam reinforcement/specification.
15. SLABS.

7. Types of slab.
8. Design specifications of slabs.
21. One way slabs.
22.Two way slabs
16.STAIR CASES.
16. Types of stair
cases.
17. Specifications .
17 BRICK
MASONRY.
18. Defination .
19. Type of bricks.
20. Type of brick
masonry
work.
18. LINTEL AND
SUNSHADES.
1. Functions.
 3. Classification of
lintels. 4.Types of Sunshades
19.CONCLUSION.

1.INTRODUCTION

BUILDING IN GENERAL:
Building is defined as any structure for the whatsoever purpose and of whatsoever material
constructed and every part thereof whether used as human habitation or not and includes
foundation, plinth, walls floors chimneys, plumbering and building services, fixed platforms,
verandah, balcony, cornice co projection and signs and outdoors display structure. Broadly
speaking building consists of three parts namely (1) Foundation (2) Plinth and (3) Superstructure.

(I) FOUNDATION

It is the lowest artificially prepared part, below the surface of the surrounding
ground which is in direct contact with substrate and transmit all the loads to the subsoil.
(ii) PLINTH
It is the middle part of the structure, above the surface of the surrounding ground up to the
surface of the floor (i.e., floor level immediately above the grounds.)
(iii) SUPER STRUCTURE
That part of the structure constructed above the plinth level (or ground floor level) is
termed as Superstructure.

LIMIT STATE METHOD:

The acceptable limit for the safety and serviceability requirements before failure occurs is
known as limit state. The structure also has to be checked for the serviceability requirements such
as limitations on deflection and cracking. In this method also called the strength of each member
in structure. The overall failure of the structure can be consigned to a limited region. This method
of design is a better approach of design.
 By using the elastic theory, the stresses in material can be limited but the actual stresses in
concrete and steel cannot be predicted accurately.

PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION OF RESIDENTIAL

BUILDING.

 Land marking
 Soil excavation

 PCC bed

 Pedestals

 Plinth beam

 Columns

 Form work

 Reinforcement for slabs

 Slab

 Brick work

 Doors and windows

 Electrical works

 Plumbing

 Plastering

 Flooring

 False ceiling

 Painting

Components parts of Building:

 1) Foundation
2) Plinths
3) Walls and Columns
4) Doors and Windows
5) Sill, Lintels, and sun shades
6) Roofs and upper floors
7) Steps and stairs
8) Finishes or Walls

LOADS ON STRUCTURE:

a. Dead loads
b. Live loads
c. Impact loads
d. Wind loads
e. Earthquake loads
f. Longitudinal loads

a. Dead Loads:
Dead loads are loads due to self weight of the structure of structural members.
The dead loads are static loads.

These are also to partition walls, flooring,. roofs, false ceiling fixtures. Etc.,
The unit weights of different materials may be taken from IS 456-2000 (Code of practice
for design loads for building and structures).
In the beginning of the design the sizes of members are not known. Therefore an
estimation of size has to made and dead loads calculated. After solving the problems a designer
will be able to estimate the correct size of the members.

b. Live loads:
Live loads are the loads which are not steady. These include moving loads like persons,
car, etc and also movable loads like furniture. Live loads cannot be determined as dead loads.
However, the live loads those had given sufficient margins in the post are use for design. Live
loads on floors and on roof are different.
c. Impact loads:
 The loads caused by vibration of live loads. There is a difference between a person simply
walking and solider marching. The person produces a live load while the soldier produce on
impacts loads.
d. Wind loads:
Wind loads are the lateral leads and depend on the velocity of the wind. The velocity of
wind can be e3stimated is different at different places. For one particulars place also. The wind
velocity is different height from the ground. Considering all these possibilities, the country is
divided several zones. For further information reference code IS: 456 – 2000.
e. Earth quake loads:
The loads are horizontal loads caused by earthquake. The country is divided into several
zones according to the probability, intensity of the earthquake. The earthquake.
f. Longitudinal loads:
Longitudinal loads are caused by sudden stopping of moving loads. A Moving crane,
moving truck etc., when abruptly stopped cause longitudinal loads for details IS Code book.

GENERAL SPECIFICATION FOR DIFFERENT

WORK

 Foundation & plinth Beam 3:4:8

:
: 3:6:7
 Columns
: 3:20-25
 Brick work
: 3:15-18
 Plastering 1 coat
st
: 3:6
 Plastering 2 coat
nd
: 3:6:8
 Stair case
: 3:6:8
 Slab
: 1.5:6:7
 Pcc flooring
∴Note: This all are using in mortar pan.
 ∴Note: Three mortar pans is equal to one bag.

MINIMUM COVERING FOR DIFFERENT WORK

 Slab covering : 1 inch

 Beam covering : 1.5 inch
 Column covering : 1.5
 Footing covering : inch 2
∴Note: This all are using in our site. inch

QUARING FOR BUILDING COMPONENT

 Quaring for slab = 21days
 Foundation = 10days

 Plinth beams = 7 days

 Brick work = 7-10 days

 Columns = 10 days

 Plastering = 10-15 days

 Stair case = 10 days

 Flooring = 5days

ABBREVATION
S
 FFL = Floor Finish Level

 DPC = Damp Proof Course

  POP = Plaster Of Paris

 PCC = Plain Concrete cement

 RCC = Reinforce cement concrete

 TMT = Thermo Mechanically Treated

 CRS = Crossed Ruble Stone

 CCB = Cement Concrete Bed

STEEL

Steel:
Is an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon. Carbon is the primary alloying element,
and its content in the steel is between 0.002% and 2.1% by weight. Additional elements may also
present in steel: manganese, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces
of oxygen, nitrogen and aluminum.

Alloy steel:
Is steel to which additional alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the
characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include:
manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium and niobium.[1]

 The grades of steel normally used for reinforcement are Fe 250,Fe 415,Fe500.

 The minimum Dia of bar is 6mm

 The maximum Dia of bar is 64mm

CALCULATION OF
STEEL ∅ 2⁄
 Formula for calculation of steel is 162
6
= 2 kg⁄
 6mm = 0.2222 m
16
2
2
 8mm 8
= 16 = 0.395 kg⁄ m
2
2
 10mm = 10
16
2 = 0.617 kg⁄ m
2
 12mm = 12 = 0.888 kg⁄
16 m
2
2
 16mm = 16 = 1.58
16
2
2
 20mm = 20 = 2.47 kg⁄ m
16
2
2
 25mm 25
= 16 = 3.86 kg⁄ m
2
2
kg
 32mm = 32 = 6.32 kg⁄ m
⁄m
16
2
 CEMENT

Cement:
Is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials
together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term opus caementicium to
describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime
as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick additives that were added to the burnt lime to
obtain a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cement, and cement.

Cements: Used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or non-

hydraulic. Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) harden because of hydration, a chemical
reaction between the anhydrous cement powder and water. Thus, they can harden underwater or
when constantly exposed to wet weather. The chemical reaction results in hydrates that are not
very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water. Non-hydraulic cements do not harden
underwater

TYPES OF
CEMENT:
1. Ordinary Portland Cement
2. Modified Portland Cement
3. Rapid Hardening or High Early Strength Portland Cement
4. Quick Setting Cement
5. Low Heat Portland Cement
6. Sulphate Resistant Portland Cement
7. Water Repellent Portland Cement
8. Water Proof Portland Cement
9. High Alumina Cement
10. Portland Slag Cement

CALCULATIONM OF
CEMENT
  Using M25 grade.
 M25=1:1:2 =4
 Area= 100cft

CEMENT
:
= 1.52 =0.38
4

= 0.38×100

= 38 bags

∴Note: This calculation is 100 cft area of

slab.
 MIXING RATIOS:
 Mixing ratios are two types they are :

1) Nominal Mix

2) Design Mix

Nominal Mixes:
In the past the specifications for concrete prescribed the proportions of cement, fine and coarse
aggregates. These mixes of fixed cement-aggregate ratio which ensures adequate strength are
termed nominal mixes.
These offer simplicity and under normal circumstances, have a margin of strength above that
specified. However, due to the variability of mix ingredients the nominal concrete for a given
workability varies widely in strength
Grade Of concrete Mix proportion
M5 1:5:10
M7.5 1:4:8
M10 1:3:6
M15 1:2:4
M20 1:1.5:3
M25 1:1:2

Designed Mixes:
In these mixes the performance of the concrete is specified by the designer but the mix
proportions are determined by the producer of concrete, except that the minimum cement content
can be laid down. This is most rational approach to the selection of mix proportions with specific
materials in mind possessing more or less unique characteristics. The approach results in the
production of concrete with the appropriate properties most economically. However, the designed
mix does not serve as a guide since this does not guarantee the correct mix proportions for the
prescribed performance.
SPECIFICATION:
Grade of concrete : M-20
grade Grade of steel : FE-415
Brick masonry : clay
bricks Covers:-

Footings =
50mm
Columns=40mm
Beams =25mm
Slab
=20mm

PLINTH
AREA:
Plinth area is a covered build up area measured at the floor level of any storey
or at floor level of basement.It is also term as Build-up aream.

 It includes external and internal walls.

 Plinth area of our building is 736 square feets

FOOTING DETAILS:

1T.hsI eomal oet sdt common type o2f.fCoomtinbgni uesded for concrete
structure are :- footing. footing.
3.Strap footing. 4.Raft or Mat
In our work we adopted isfooolatitnegd.footing and combined footing

ISOLATED FOOTING:-
Footings which are provided under each column independently are called as Isolated footings.
They are usually square, rectangular or circular in section. Footing is laid on PCC. Before laying
PCC, termite control liquid is sprayed on top face of PCC to restrict the termites to damage the
footing. Isolated footings are provided where the soil bearing capacity is generally high and it
comprises of a thick slab which may be flat or stepped or sloped. This type of footings are most
economical when compared with the other kind of footings.
Advantages of Isolated Footing:-
1. Economical when columns are placed at longer distances.
2. Workmen with little or no knowledge can easily construct.
3. Ease of Constructability:- Excavation, Form-work, Reinforcement placement and
placing of Concrete is at ease.

COMBINED FOOTING:-
A footing which has more than one column is called as combined footing. This kind of
footing is adopted when there is a limited space. Due to lack of space we cannot cast
individual footing, Therefore footings are combined in one footing. They are classified into
two types based on their shape:
4. Rectangular combined footing.
5. Trapezoidal combined footing.

DESING OF FOOTING
Foundations are structural elements that transfer loads from the building or individual
column to the earth .If these loads are to be properly transmitted, foundations must be designed
to prevent excessive settlement or rotation, to minimize differential settlement and to provide
adequate safety against sliding and overturning.

GENERAL:
1.) Footing shall be designed to sustain the applied loads, moments and forces and the
induced reactions and to assure that any settlements which may occur will be as nearly
uniform as possible and the safe bearing capacity of soil is not exceeded.

2.) Thickness at the edge of the footing: in reinforced and plain concrete footing at the edge shall
be not less than 150 mm for footing on the soil nor less than 300mm above the tops of the pile
for footing on piles.

1. BEARING CAPACITY OF SOIL:

The size foundation depends on permissible bearing capacity of soil. The total load per unit area
under the footing must be less than the permissible bearing capacity of soil to the
excessive settlements.

1. Foundation design:
 Foundations are structure elements that transfer loads from building or individual column
to earth this loads are to be properly transmitted foundations must be designed to prevent
excessive settlement are rotation to minimize differential settlements and to provide adequate
safety isolated footings for multi stored buildings. These may be square rectangle are circular in
plan that the choice of type of foundation to be used in a given situation depends on a number of
factors.

1.) Bearing capacity of soil

2.) Type of

structure 3.) Type

of loads
4.) Permissible
differential
settlements

5.) Economy

2.2 Load-Bearing
Soil
ValueType
of Soil LBV Per Square Foot

Code refers to load-bearing values (LBVs) as "presumptive." This means that a soil test is the only
way to really know the load-bearing value (LBV) of the soil for the footings
Bedrock on a givensite.
12,000

Sedimentary Rock 4,000

Sandy Gravel or Gravel 3,000

Sand, Silty Sand, Clayey Sand, Silty Gravel, Clayey Gravel 2,000

Clay, Sandy Clay, Silty Clay, Clayey Silt 1,500

STARTERS:
A base structure before casting of column to a column in
fixed position and erect form work Is termed as starters.
 They acts as a base for the columns.
 They are available in different sizes that of column size.

COLUMNS:-
A vertical member whose effective length is greater than 3
times its least Lateral dimension carrying compressive load is called columns.
Generally the columns are square, rectangular and circular in
shape.
For the purpose of wind or earthquake engineering, columns may be
designed to resist lateral forces. Other compression members are often termed "columns"
because of the similar stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to support beams or
arches on which the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture, "column" refers to
such a structural element that also has certain proportional and decorative features. A column
might also be a decorative element not needed for structural purposes; many columns are
engaged, that is to say form part of a wall.
There are various types of RCC Column based on its shape, length and
forces. Function and construction methods are discussed here for these types of column.
 Column is a vertical member which takes complete load of the beam, slabs and the entire
structure and the floor and other area of the building is adjusted as per the requirement of the
client or owner.

The size of the columns, quantity of cement sand and aggregate to be mixed, the number of steel
bars to be placed, spacing between the stirrups is all mentioned in the structural drawing which is
designed by structural designer as per the actual load on the column and considering the factor of
safety.

A column is a vertical member which effectively takes load by compression. Basically column
is a compression member as load acts along its longitudinal axis. Bending moment may occur
due to wind earthquake or accidental loads.

Column transfers the load of the structure of slabs beams above to below, and finally load is
transferred to the soil. Position of the columns should be so that there are no tensile stresses
developed at the cross section of the columns. Columns location should be such that it hides in
the walls partially or fully.

Types of RCC Column

Types of RCC Column based onShapes

o Circular for exposed outside for good architecture view

o Square or rectangular traditional for any structure

Types of RCC Column based on length
o Short column – if L/B<=12

o Long column – if L/B > 12

Where L is the height of the column, B is width

Generally, floor height is approximately 3 m or 10 feet, L/B ratio will be less than 12, so in
maximum cases short column is placed. In case where height of floor is more than 3 m or 10
feet, we need to check L/B ratio so result may be long or short column. Generally, on long
column there are more forces generated so should be designed carefully.

Types of RCC Column based onmoments

o Biaxial column: Designed for axial load and moment in 2 directions

o Uniaxial columns: Designed for axial load and moment in 1 direction

Generally, in a building corner most columns are biaxial columns and side column is
uniaxial
column and internal columns can be any of these.
 Construction Methods of RCC Columns

Construction of RCC columns involve following four steps:

o Column layouts

o Column reinforcement work

o Column formwork

o Pouring of concrete
Layout of Columns

Column layouts are done by laying rope in the grid lines and mark the location of columns

Column Reinforcement

Column reinforcement works needs following checklist on site:

o Check the numbers and diameter of vertical bars

o Spacing between vertical bars

o Check Development length which depends on diameter of bar

o Lapping in alternate bars should come at same height.

o Lapping should not come inside beam or slab.

o Lapping should be at l/3 or 2l/3 of column as per structural notes

o Spacing between stirrups is as per the drawing

o Hook should be bend properly at right angles.

o Check the stirrups corner. Vertical bar should come at right angle edge of stirrup properly bound
with binding wire.

TIES:

 Ties are used in columns to hold the longitudinal bars in position in the
forms while the concrete is being placed.
  Ties are used to prevent the highly stressed slender longitudinal bars from
buckling out words by bursting the thin concrete cover.
 12mm and 8mm are the diameter of the bars used for ties with an angle
of 135 degrees.

Shuttering work/form work:

 Shuttering is the term given to either temporary or permanent mold into
which concrete or similar materials are poured.It is a temporary structure which is used as a
mould to pour the concrete. It is a vertical or horizontal arrangement made to keep concrete in
position until it gains strength & shape.

BEAMS

A beam is a structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to the beam's
axis. Its mode of deflection is primarily by bending. The loads applied to the beam result
in reaction forces at the beam's support points. The total effect of all the forces acting on
the beam
is to produce shear forces and bending moments within the beam, that in turn induce
internal stresses, strains and deflections of the beam. Beams are characterized by their manner of
support, profile (shape of cross-section), length, and their material.
Beams are traditionally descriptions of building or civil engineering structural elements, but
any structures such as automotive automobile frames, aircraft components, machine frames, and
other mechanical or structural systems contain beam structures that are designed to carry lateral
loads are analyzed in a similar fashion.

Classification based on supports In engineering, beams are of several types:

1. Simply supported – a beam supported on the ends which are free to rotate and have no
moment resistance.
 2. Fixed – a beam supported on both ends and restrained from rotation.
3. Over hanging – a simple beam extending beyond its support on one end.
4. Double overhanging – a simple beam with both ends extending beyond its supports
on both ends.
5. Continuous – a beam extending over more than two supports.
6. Cantilever – a projecting beam fixed only at one end.
7. Trussed – a beam strengthened by adding a cable or rod to form a truss
1 Beam design:
a reinforced concrete beam should be able to resist tensile, compressive and shear stress
induced in it by loads on the beam.

There are three types of reinforeced concrete beams

1.) single reinforced beams

2.) double reinforced concrete

3.) flanged beams

2 Singly reinforced beams:

effective in resisting in the tensile bending s In singly reinforced simply supported beams
steel bars are placed near the bottom of the beam where they are more tress. I cantilever
beams reinforcing bars placed near the top of the beam, for the same reason as in the case of
simply supported beam.

3 Doubly reinforced concrete beams:

It is reinforced under compression tension regions. The necessity of steel of compression
region arises due to two reasons. When depth of beam is restricted. The strength availability
singly reinforced beam is in adequate. At a support of continuous beam where bending
moment changes sign such as situation may also arise in design of a beam circular in plan.

Figure shows the bottom and top reinforcement details at three different sections.
NOTE :These calculations are interpreted manually.

REINFORCEMENT SPECIFICATIONS:
Reinforcement specifications of reinforced concrete earthquake resistant structures also satisfy
the detailing requirements applying to conventional structures as during their lifespan they are
rarely subjected to earthquakes.

For a structure to be earthquake resistant it must firstly abide by the regulations regarding
conventional structures. However, its construction demands greater diligence because during the
critical moment of the seismic event the structure will be tested to its strength limits thus proving
the need for meticulous application of all the reinforced concrete rules. Beyond, therefore, the
normal construction rules, other rules must be satisfied as well mainly regarding the transverse
reinforcement usually consisting of dense polymorphic stirrups.
The basic specifications of antiseismic reinforcement are four:
(1) The concrete cover of the reinforcement,

(2) The minimum distance between reinforcement bars,

(3) The gradual bending of rebars
(4) The antiseismic stirrups.

The minimum required cover thickness for slab reinforcement usually ranges between 20 and 30
mm depending on the environmental conditions present throughout the building’s service life.
The 20 mm would apply to a dry climate and the 30 mm to a seaside location.
The required cover is maintained only with the use of special stands called spacers. These must
not be affected by corrosion and should be placed approximately every 1.00 m.
The simplest solution for providing the necessary cover thickness of the reinforcement is special
plastic under layers like the ones shown in the above figure. Usage of steel rebar spacers is
forbidden as they are highly susceptible to corrosion.

When rebar corrode the resulting volume expansion leads to concrete spalling and
consequently to the cracking of the plaster. Extensive deterioration affects not only the residents’
safety but also the structure’s service life.

The position of the upper (negative) slab reinforcement, either placed over the support
between two slabs or over the support between a slab and a balcony (cantilever slab), can be
secured only with the use of special rebar chairs.
Prefabricated element, made out of a thin steel rebar with plastic tipped legs in order to
prevent corrosion of the support area between the rebar chair and the formwork.

Prefabricated element, made out of a thin steel rebar with plastic tipped legs in order
to
prevent corrosion of the support area between the rebar chair and the formwork.

SLABS
 Slab is plate elements forming floor and roofs of buildings carrying distributed loads
primarily by flexure.

1. One way slab:

One way slab are those in which the length is more than twice the breadth it can be simply
supported beam or continuous beam.

2. Two way slab:

When slabs are supported to four sides two ways spanning action occurs.Such as slab
are
simply supported on any or continuous or all sides the deflections and bending moments are
considerably reduces as compared to those in one way slab.
Following figures shows the load distributions in two slabs.

A Diagram of load distribution of one way and two way

slabs
The following figure shows the monolithic connection between beam, column and slab

Monolithic connection between beam, column and slab

 Design specifications of slabs

Design Considerations for one way slab

The primary design considerations of both one and two-way slabs are strength and
deflection. The depth of the slab and areas of steel reinforcement are to be determined from
these two aspects. The detailed procedure of design of one-way slab is taken up in the next
section. However, the following aspects are to be decided first.

(a) Effective span (cl.22.2 of IS 456) ;

The effective span of a slab depends on the boundary condition. Table gives the guidelines
stipulated in cl.22.2 of IS 456 to determine the effective span of a slab. Effective span of slab
(cl.22.2 of IS 456)
Si.no Support condition Effective span
01 Simply supported not build integrally Lesser of (i) clear span +effective depth
with its supports of slab , and (ii) Centre to Centre of
supports
02 Continuous when the width of the Do
support is <1/12th of clear span
03 Continuous when the width of the ( i ) clear span between the supports
supports is >lesser of 1/12 of clear span (ii)lesser of (a) clear span +half the
th

or 600 mm effective depth of slab ,and (b) clear

(i) for end span with one end fixed and span +half the discontinuous supports
the other end continuous or for
intermediate supports (iii)the distance between the centers of
(ii)for end span with one end free and bearings
the other end continuous
(iii) spans with roller or rocker
bearings
04 Cantilever slab at the end of a continuous Length up to the Centre of supports
slab
05 Cantilever span Length up to the face of the support
+half the effective depth
06 Frames Centre to Centre distance

(b) Effective span to effective depth ratio (cls.23.2.1a-e of IS 456)

The deflection of the slab can be kept under control if the ratios of effective span to effective
depth of one-way slabs are taken up from the provisions in cl.23.2.1a-e of IS 456. These
stipulations are for the beams and are also applicable for one-way slabs as they are designed
considering them as beam of unit width.

(c) Nominal cover (cl.26.4 of IS 456)

The nominal cover to be provided depends upon durability and fire resistance requirements.
Table 16 and 16A of IS 456 provide the respective values. Appropriate value of the nominal
cover is to be provided from these tables for the particular requirement of the structure.
(d) Minimum reinforcement (cl.26.5.2.1 of IS 456)
Both for one and two-way slabs, the amount of minimum reinforcement in either
direction shall not be less than 0.15 and 0.12 per cents of the total crosssectional area for mild
steel (Fe 250) and high strength deformed bars (Fe 415 and Fe 500)/welded wire fabric,
respectively.

(e) Maximum diameter of reinforcing bars (cl.26.5.2.2)

The maximum diameter of reinforcing bars of one and two-way slabs shall not exceed
one-eighth of the total depth of the slab.

(f) Maximum distance between bars (cl.26.3.3 of IS 456)

The maximum horizontal distance between parallel main reinforcing bars shall be the
lesser of (i) three times the effective depth, or (ii) 300 mm. However, the same for
secondary/distribution bars for temperature, shrinkage etc. shall be the lesser of (i) five times
the effective depth, or (ii) 450 mm.
Design Considerations for two way slab
The design considerations mentioned in sec. 8.18.5 of Lesson 18 in (a), (c), (d), (e) and (f)
are applicable for the two-way slabs also. However, the effective span to effective depth ratio
is different from those of one-way slabs. Accordingly, this item for the two-way slabs is
explained below.
Effective span to effective depth ratio (cl. 24.1 of IS 456)
The following are the relevant provisions given in Notes 1 and 2 of cl. 24.1.
• The shorter of the two spans should be used to determine the span to effective depth ratio.
•For spans up to 3.5 m and with mild steel reinforcement, the span to overall depth ratios
satisfying the limits of vertical deflection for loads up to 3 kN/m2 are as follows:
Simply supported slabs 35
Continuous slabs 40
•The same ratios should be
multiplied by 0.8 when
high strength deformed
bars (Fe 415) are
used in the slabs. 8.19.6
Design of Two-way Slabs
The procedure of the
design of two-way slabs
will have all the six steps
mentioned in sec.
8.18.6 for the design of
one-way slabs except that
the bending moments and
shear forces are
determined by different
methods for the two types
of slab.
While the bending moments and shear forces are computed from the coefficients given in
requirements. Accordingly, the determination of torsional reinforcement is discussed in Step
7, as all the other six steps are common for the one and two-way slabs. Step 7:
Determination of torsional reinforcement
Three types of corners, C1, C2 and C3, shown in Fig.8.19.4, have three different
requirements of torsion steel as mentioned below.
(a)At corner C1 where the slab is discontinuous on both sides, the torsion reinforcement shall
consist of top and bottom bars each with layers of bar placed parallel to the sides of the slab
and extending a minimum distance of one fifth of the shorter span from the edges. The
amount of reinforcement in each of the four layers shall be 75 per cent of the area required
for the maximum mid span moment in the slab. This provision is given in cl. D-1.8 of IS
456.
(b)At corner C2 contained by edges over one of which is continuous, the torsional
reinforcement shall be half of the amount of (a) above. This provision is given in cl. D-1.9 of
IS 456.
(c)At corner C3 contained by edges over both of which the slab is continuous, torsional
reinforcing bars need not be provided, as stipulated in cl. D1.10 of IS 456.
Checks for slab

General practice is to check when the beam and slab elements are ready for concreting i.e.
reinforcement fully tied up but ideal practice would be to check it in two phase i.e.
1. First check formwork before you allow placing of reinforcement. This is necessary as
certain formwork defects can’t be corrected or are difficult to correct after reinforcement is
placed in position.
2. Checking reinforcement.

Hence as a standard engineering practice one should check first the formwork before
reinforcement is placed or tied.
1. Centering and shuttering / Formwork:

First check the quality of shuttering plates. Avoid using plates with uneven surface and
damaged edges. They must be of regular size.

If plywood is used, it should be of BWP grade and durable under alternate wetting and
drying conditions.

Take approval for shuttering from Engineer-in-charge or supervisor before tying

reinforcement.

Engineer-in-charge or supervisor must check the slope, level of slabs and beams before
placing reinforcement in position. Preliminary inspection should be done even before
commencing tying of reinforcement.

Shuttering should be hard enough to withstand the load of concrete and impact of placing
of concrete and vibrations.
 Oil or mould release agent should be applied on shuttering plates so that shuttering can be
easily removed after concrete gets initial strength.

12 mm diameter PVC pipe nipples should be provided before casting of sloping roof.
These nipples will be useful for cement grout after slab is concreted. The grouting is
needed as however great precautions you may take while concreting sloping roof, the slab is
liable to leakage. The grouting will reduce the leakage.

Mark one level on every column as per beam depth

Position and level of beam bottom supports should be with respect to the depth of the
beam.

Bottom plank of the beam should be straight. It should not be bent.

Joints of beam bottom should be properly propped so that formwork doesn’t bulge during
concreting.

Before providing beam sides, level of the beam bottom should be

checked. After levelling of beam bottom bracing should be provided.

The plumb of beam sides at each end should be checked with the help
of line dori.
Shuttering of beam column junction should be in plumb and watertight.

Formwork joints in beam sides should be taken at the end of beam.

Before casting a slab, all shuttering gaps must be properly closed giving particular
attention to column cap, beam junctions, beam side to slab bottom junction and beam side
to beam bottom junction as well as jointing between two plates.

Adjustable plates (gabadi plate or gap plate) should be used to avoid gabadi in particular
bay. Contractors are ignorant about repairing the small This affects the strength of concrete.

In such cases, contractors use scrap material where it is not possible to place shuttering
plates and bottom of slab is not in same level. It affects the thickness of plaster.

The slab thickness should be marked on the side of slab as per the thickness of slab.

Wooden props should be avoided as far as possible. Wooden props, if used, check for
soundness, proper sizes, plumb and see that they are not butt spliced.

Props must be braced in both directions by tubes and fixed couplers.

Wooden plates are not recommended as due to surface deformations they give uneven
surface resulting in increasing the thickness of ceiling plaster.

All the props must be in proper alignment, plumb and not jointed more than 20%.
Props
must not get staggered.

All the props must be kept vertical by providing wedges and cross bracings. Do not use
bricks or blocks below props to adjust height. Contractors fix the props in a slant position to
avoid cutting of props or to utilize short prop they give more packing below the prop. They
are dangerous and may slip while concreting and invite failure of cantilever formwork.

Individual prop must be braced both ways with continuous runners and prop system braced
laterally.

Minimum spacing between props should be 0.60m (2.0′) center to center in case of wooden
props and M.S. props.

Extra care need to be taken when cantilever slab (for Balcony) has to cast at first floor. In
this case let’s say plinth height is 0.9 meter & floor height is 3 meter then total height of the
props would be 3.9 meter. In this case, sometimes it may happen that the props are placed on
freshly filled up soil. At that moment temporary C.C. should be done before placing those
props for cantilever slab on filled up soil. The filled up soil should also be properly
compacted / watered.

The reason for temporary PCC is that freshly filled up soil may settle and cantilever slab
may sink.
Proper camber should be provided as per drawing particularly in large span beam at
the
center and in case of cantilever beam at the end.

When span of the beam is more than 6 to 9 meter then camber should be provided in centre
of the beam. It is possible that when span to depth ratio is not maintained the chances of
deflection at center may arise. To check the deflections of large beam follow this site
experiment.

To check whenever deflection is taking place during concreting or not (particularly in case
of long span between) adopt the match box technique. Take a single prop and place it in the
centre of the beam with empty matchbox placed on top of prop (leave a space between beam
shuttering and prop). Once casting has been carried out, if the empty matchbox gets crushed
it can be clearly said that the deflection has occurred.

If it deflects and if deflection is more than permissible limits, it is serious and

immediately
consults your structural engineer to arrive at right engineering solutions.

Providing camber can minimise the risk of deflection particularly in long span of beam.
This also happens after hardening of concrete.

M.S. props must used when height of the staging is more than 3.6m (12′).

Remove all the debris e.g. dust, paper, leaves, chippings of woods, nails, reinforcement
wastage, soil particles etc…

Before placing the concrete, sprinkle some water over the shuttering of slab.

02. Reinforcement:

The reinforcement steel should be free of any loose scale, rust, mud, or oil.
 Cutting of reinforcement should be done beam wise and for the total number of the beams,
required for slab. Extra length of cutting bars at the ends leads to improper end cover.

Make sure that cover blocks used for casting of slab and beam have the same grade as of
concrete. They are not broken and properly positioned and should not get disturbed during
concreting operations.

Proper cover to reinforcement should be provided to slab bottom, beam bottom and
sidewalls.

Before placing the concrete, Check the reinforcement details with bar bending schedule
and get an approval from structural consultant.

The reinforcement of slab must be in proper alignment and the slab bends must be lifted up
to give a bend up of height 12.5 mm less than slab thickness without cover.

Make sure that size and spacing of reinforcement are as per drawing, particularly for
main
reinforcement of slab or beam.

Full bearing of beam bars should be given on column.

Beam bars should be passing through column reinforcement fully.

Provide M.S. chairs in cantilever slab reinforcement as well as for lifted bent up bars.

Check the laps of beam or slab with detailed drawing. Never keeps lap in middle of beam
or slab if they have long span. Keep the lap in alternate pattern and it should be in staggered
manner.

Check the joints beam-column joint details as per detailed drawing- flexible or

rigid. Bent up bars must be as per detailed drawing. It should not be in middle

height.

See that whenever the reinforcement of cantilever beam are at top and also ensure that the
counter balance in cantilever beam is adequately provided e. top bars are adequately taken
into the main beams or slabs (Minimums double the cantilever length).

Oil should not come in contact with surface of reinforcement. It will reduce the bond.

Stirrups must be provided at junction of beams and columns which is generally

avoided.

Dowels (if any) Should be provided for elevational features / future extensions/ upper story
column.

Parapet (Pardi) bars shall be left for balconies/staircase

STAIR CASES:
Stair cases are used to connect two floor in
a building .
Types of stair cases:
1. Straight stairs.
2.Quarter turn stairs.
3.Doglegged stairs.

4. Open well stairs.

5.Three quarter turn stairs.

6.Bifurcating stairs.
7. Geometrical stairs.

8. Circular stairs.

Stair cases
details:
No. of
steps :- 10
Length of
landing:-
1000mm
Rise :-150mm (max
170mm) Tread :-300mm
Height of flight : 1375mm
Types of bars :-
9. Main bar of 12mm dia.
10.Distribution bars of
8mm dia.
Brick Masonry Definition:
Brick masonry is a highly durable form of construction. It is built by placing bricks in mortar
in a systematic manner to construct solid mass that withstand exerted loads. There are several
types of bricks and number of mortars which can be used to construct brick masonry.

The bond in brick masonry, which adheres bricks together, is produced by filling joints between
bricks with suitable mortar. Special cautions shall be practiced while mortar is
mixed and placed since it greatly affect the performance and durability of masonry
structure.

Types of Brick Masonry Work

1. Brick Work in Mud
 The mud is used to fill up various joints brick masonry work.
 Thickness of the mortar joint is 12 mm.
 it is the cheapest type of brick masonry
 employed for construction of walls with maximum height of 4 m.

2. Brick Work in
Cement:

This type of brick masonry is construction by laying bricks in cement mortar

rather than mud which is used in brick work in mud. There are three major
classes of brick work in cement which are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1 Different classes of brick work in cement

and their descriptions
 Classes Descriptions
 Cement of
lime mortar is
used,
 The surface
and edges of
First Class bricks are
sharp,
 And the
thickness of
mortar joints
doesn’t exceed
10mm
 Ground
moulded bricks
are used,
 Bricks are rough
Second Class
and shape is
slightly irregular,
 The thickness of
mortar joint is 12
mm.
 Bricks are not
hard ,rough
surface with
distorted
shape,
 Used for
Third Class temporary
structures,
 Used in places
where rainfall is
not heavy.

Types of Bricks
There are different types of brick used in the construction of brick masonry

 Common Burnt Clay Bricks

 Concrete Bricks
 Sand Lime Bricks (Calcium Silicate Bricks)
 Fly ash Clay Bricks
 Engineering Bricks
 Other Brick Types include bullnose, channel, coping, cownose and hollow
bricks.
 Brick Masonry Construction

Materials and Equipment Used in Brick Masonry Construction

1. Mortar Mix or Mason Mix Bricks

2. Tape measure

3. hammer

4. Hose, level, or theodolite

5. Trowel Level

6. Wheelbarrow

7. Goggles

8. Jointer

9. And other equipment according to project ans personal preferences

Brick Masonry Construction Preparations

10. Check the level of the ground using level, theodolite or transparent hose level.

11. Set the layout of the structure.

 Fig. 4: Setting out layout of masonry structure
3. Trace of building axis and wall alignment using gypsum powder, chalk, or similar, marking
the trenches for foundation.

4. After that,install foundation wall, cure foundation for minimum two days before beginning of
brick masonry construction.

5. Distribute bricks in several stacks along project site to cut time and effort later.

6. Wet bricks few hours prior to the work. Not only does this avoid absorbing too much water
from mortar but also improve adherence of bricks and mortar.

Brick Masonry Construction Procedure

7. Initially, mix the mortar with water and blend it until a smooth and plastic mortar is
produced.

8. After that, place the mortar on foundation line evenly using trowel (25mm thickness and one
brick wide is recommended for laid mortar).

9. Then, lay the first course of stretcher bricks in the mortar. Start with second brick, apply
mortar to the head joint end of each brick, After that shove the bricks into place firmly so that
the mortar is squeezed out of all side of the joints.

Fig. 6: laying bricks

4. Utilize a level to examine the course for correct height. ensure that bricks are plumb and
level.
 Fig. 7: Plumb line of brick masonry

Fig. 8: Checking level of brick masonry

5. Place another mortar line alongside the first course, then begin laying the second course.

6. Use the two half bricks to begin the second to ensure that the first two courses are staggered
for structural purposes.

7. To finish the second course of the lead, lay three header bricks and make sure that they are
plumb and level.

8. The third and fifth courses consists of stretchers similar to the first course. The fourth course
begins with single header, followed by stretchers. Use the level to make sure that the lead is
true on each course. Lastly, this pattern of brick laying is used till the target height is reached.

Points Considered in Supervising Brick Masonry Constructions

The following points should be observed in the construction of brick masonry

1. Before using the bricks in construction it should be checked for its physical properties
(such as strength, dimension, water absorption etc).

2. Bricks must conform to the designer’s specification.

3.Prior to use bricks in construction, it should be soaked in water for sufficient time so that
the water penetrates the whole depth of brick.

4.After completion of the soaking period, bricks should be removed from water and allowed
to become surface dry, before use in construction.

5. Always laid the bricks having its frog facing upward.

6. The mortar should completely cover the bed and sides of the bricks.

7.During laying bricks on mortar bed, it should be slightly pressed into the mortar bed to
ensure good bonding and uniform joint thickness.

8.During laying bricks should also be pressed sideways, to have uniform thickness of vertical
joints.

9.All the joints in brick masonry should be so filled with mortar that no cavity is left in
between.

10.Brick work construction should be started from its end or corners and it should be carried
out perfectly in line.

11. The brick work should be perfectly in level.

12.Check the vertical faces of a brick work by means of a plumb bob and check the inclined
surfaces by means of wooden templates.

13. Brick bonds as suggested by the designer should be adopted.

14. As far as possible try to use less no of brick bats.

15. Mortar of required consistency should be used.

16.The amount of mortar per use should be so prepared that it can be used within 30
minutes.
Any mortar older than 30 minutes should not be used.

17.In case cross wall is to be inserted later, steps or toothing or recesses should be provided
during construction.
18.At plinth, window sill, floor level, roof level and at the top of the parapet wall, the brick
course should be laid with bricks on edge.

19.Iron fixtures such as hold fasts for doors & windows etc, should be embedded in cement
mortar or cement concrete.
20.In case the wall face is to be plastered, all joints should be raked to a minimum depth of
10 to 15 mm. this raking is done when the mortar is in green condition.

21.If no plaster has to be done on wall surface, then joints in the wall surface should not be
raked at all.

22.At every 30 m to 45 m length of wall, provide expansion joints of about 18 mm to 25

mm

23.After construction of brick masonry, it should be cured properly for a period of 1 to 2

week.

LINTEL AND SUN-SHADES

LINTEL:

Lintel is a beam like structural flexural member, used to support over the openings of doors,
windows and cupboards.

FUNTIONS:
1.These are placed over the openings of doors and windows, as the frames of doors and
windows are not strong enough to support the weight of the wall above the opening.

2.It’s a beam like structural member, which transfers the loads acting over the opening of the
wall.

CLASSIFICATION OF LINTELS:

3. Timber lintels

4. Stone lintels

5. Brick lintels

6. Reinforced brick lintels

7. Steel lintel

8. RCC lintel (commonly used 1:2:4 can be used for smaller spans up to1.5m)

9. Thin lintel (thickness= 75-100mm only)

SUNSHADES:

Sunshade is an outward projection provided for the door or window opening for preventing
the direct entry of the sunlight or the rain in to the building. The windows which are facing
the north or east will require smaller projection compared with those facing south or west.
because of the morning sun is pleasant. The window opening facing the south and west
direction requires sun-breakers.

TYPES OF SUNSHADES:

10.Horizontal sun-shade

11.Vertical sun-

sunshade 3.Box type

sun-shade 4.Louver

type sun-shade

1.HORIZONTAL
SUN-SHADE:

These are constructed

along the lintel.

Conclusion
We can conclude that there is difference between the theoretical and practical work done . As
the scope of uderstanding will be much more when practical work is done . As we get more
knowledge in such situation where we have great expression doing the practical work .