Chapter four

COMPOSTING
 Chapter four
Composting of Municipal Waste
• Definition
Definition
strict sense
“Composting is the biological decomposition
of biodegradable solid waste under controlled
predominantly aerobic conditions to a state
that is sufficiently stable for nuisance-free
storage and handling and is satisfactorily
matured for safe use in agriculture”.
An “ecological definition” is as follows:
“Composting is a decomposition process in
which the substrate is progressively broken
down by a succession of populations of
living organisms. The breakdown products of
one serve as the substrate for the succeeding
population. The succession is initiated by
way of the breakdown of the complex
molecules in the raw substrate to simpler
forms by microbes indigenous to the
substrate”.
Up to 70 percent of the municipal solid waste
stream is organic material.
Yard trimmings alone constitute 20 percent
of municipal solid waste stream.
Composting organic materials can
significantly reduce waste stream volume and
offers economic advantages for communities
when the costs of other options are high.
 What is Compost?
Decomposed organic material
 Composting
Composting is the transformation of organic material
(plant matter) through decomposition into a soil-like
material called compost.

Invertebrates (insects and earthworms), and

microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) help in this
transformation.
Its Recycling…

Naturally
 What is composting?
Using the natural process of decay to
change organic wastes into a valuable
humus-like material called compost
Grass clippings
Compost
Food scraps

Leaves
Composting -
Speeding up the natural decay process

A compost pile or bin

allows you to control
• Air (oxygen)
• Water
• Food, and
• Temperature

By managing these factors you can speed up the

otherwise slow natural decay process
 Why Compost?
• Recycling, reduce waste
• Improves the soil
• Adds nutrients to the soil
• Food for plants
• Environmentally responsible
• Monetary benefit
• Environmentally responsible
– Keeps biodegradable waste out of landfills
and sewage plants
– Alternative to burning
– Gives you a vibrant garden without chemical
fertilizers
• Saves money
• Learning tool
 What do you need to make compost?

• Decomposers – simple
organisms such as
bacteria or fungi that
break down dead
organisms and waste and
returns important
nutrients to the
MOST of the energy in a
compost bins is converted environment.
into HEAT Energy!
 Composting Microbes
 Bacteria – primary decomposer; they generate the
heat; many types involved in composting
Thermophilic bacteria active at 35oC to 50o C
(the fast decomposers)
Mesophilic bacteria active at 20 oC to 30 oC
 Actinomycetes – not as efficient as bacteria, prefer
woody materials, active at mesophilic temperatures

 Fungi – major decomposers but not as efficient as

bacteria, active at mesophilic temperatures
• Composting Macro-organisms
 Earthworms – capable of fully digesting organic waste, they
coat materials with film that helps retain nutrients
 Insects – many kinds found in compost, they
feed on organic matter, micro-organisms and other macro-
organisms
 Nematodes – eat bacteria, fungal spores &
other micro-organisms
 Mites – primarily eat yeast cells
 Where do the decomposers come
from?

If you build it,

they will come…
• Soil
• Leaves
• Food scraps
• Manure, and
• Finished compost
Each of these will add
microorganisms
to the compost pile
One teaspoon of good garden soil added to
compost contains
• 100 million bacteria
• 800 feet of fungal threads
Your compost workers will thrive if you give
them a balanced diet.
• Composting will be most rapid if the
decomposers are fed a mix of carbon rich and
nitrogen rich materials.
• Carbon rich organic wastes are known as
“browns”
• Nitrogen rich organic wastes are known as
“greens”
Excellent Compost Materials
 BROWNS
High carbon materials such as
Leaves
Straw
Paper
Sawdust
Animal bedding mixed
with manure
(Manure provides
food for micro-
organisms which
enrich the soil)
 Greens
High nitrogen materials such as
Vegetable scraps
Coffee grounds
Grass clippings
Manure-provides food for
micro-organisms which
enrich the soil
 Browns Greens
• Decay very slowly • Decay rapidly
• Coarse browns can keep • Poor aeration – may have
pile aerated foul odors if composted
alone
• Tend to accumulate in the • Tend to accumulate in
fall spring and summer
• Tie up nitrogen in soil if not • Supply nitrogen for
fully composted composting
• May need to stockpile until • Best composting if mixed
can mix with greens with browns
 What it involves

• Adding ingredients
• Maintaining proper temperature
• Turning
• Maintaining moisture
• Harvesting
 Compost Can Be Used To:
Add Beneficial Organisms
Add Nutrients
Help Sandy Soil Hold Moisture
Loosen Heavy Clay Soils
Make Potting Soil
Mulch
• stages as mulch
– Keeps weeds from growing
– Helps retain moisture
– Beneficial minerals go into soil
• Later stages for soil amending
– Enriches soil
– Helps with moisture retention
• Removes/reduce Early s need for
chemical fertilizers that leach into our
ground water
 When is compost finished?
Compost is mature when
• The color is dark brown
• It is crumbly, loose,
and humus-like
• It has an earthy smell
• The pile has shrunk to
about 1/3 of its original
volume
 Composting stages

(1) active composting

Active composting is the period of vigorous microbial activity
during which readily degradable material is decomposed as well
as some of the more decay-resistant material, such as cellulose.
(2) curing.
follows active composting and is characterized by a lower level
of microbial activity and the further decomposition of the
products of the active composting stage
Composting systems broadly classified as:
 Windrow composting
 In-vessel systems

 Windrow System: Organic waste mixture is placed in elongated

piles, (called windrows), and aerated by mechanically turning the piles
with a machine

Windrows are classified based on the mechanism of aeration;

 Turned (agitated)type
Windrow systems utilize a turning machine or similar equipment to
turn piles, introduce oxygen to the middle of the piles and bring
uncomposted material into the microbiologically active center.
 Forced aerarion (static pile) type
Aerated static pile systems use blowers to force air through static
piles in order to ensure sufficient oxygen levels to maintain microbial
activity and drive out excess heat
 Combined turned and forced aeration type
 Turned windrow aeration
Turning is accomplished by tearing down and then reconstructing the
windrow either in its original position or immediately adjacent or
somewhat removed from its prior position.

Tearing down and reconstructing the windrow;

 exposes the composting material to the ambient air and replenishes

oxygen supply,
 resulting mixing renews microbial access to the nutrients and disperses

metabolic intermediates.
 Cooling effect of turning used for lowering a pile temperature that has

reached inhibitory levels

Frequent turning
 Promotes uniform decomposition

 Subjects all material to an eventual exposure to high temperature

Equipment
Bulldozer
Front (bucket) loader
Auger turner
Elevating face conveyor
Rotary drum with flail
capacity of 800tons/hr to
3000tons/hr
 Turned Windrow (continued)

 Advantages
Can be operated with range of basic to specialized equipment
Is flexible enough to handle wide range of materials
 Assists decomposition by re-mixing materials
 Allows adjustment of mixture during composting
 Regulatory process for disinfection
 Disadvantages

Requires relatively large area

 Can require significant amounts of water
 Can generate significant odor when turning
 Low capital & moderate operating cost
Forced aeration (static pile)
Process management
 Temperature control: optimum temp 55-60°C

Electronic temp. sensors provide means to control airflow as well as

monitor temp. An electronic signal from sensor causes a control
circuit to switch blower on or off when temp. reaches set limits
 Oxygen control

Oxygen sensing device activate the blowers when the oxygen drops
below a predetermined level
Direction of airflow: may or may not be reversed during process
-Air is initially sucked through the windrow and passed through an
emmision filter for odor control
-Airflow is reversed during the maturing and curing phases
Passively Aerated Windrow (continued)
 Advantages
 Reduces labor/equipment inputs
Reduces moisture loss and water need
Relatively low potential for odor
Low capital & operating cost

 Disadvantages
 Requires longer time and relatively large area
 Increases time to build windrow
 Limits ability to adjust mixture
 Does not physically break & mix material
 Not a regulatory process for disinfection
 In-vessel systems
In vessel composting accomplished inside an enclosed container or
vessel.
The method of aerating the composting mass are:
Plug flow( forced) – relationship between particles in the composting
mass stays the same throughout the process, and the system operates
on a first-in, first-out principle
Agitation (dynamic) – the composting material is mixed
mechanically during the processing
Mechanical systems are designed to minimize odors and process time
by controlling environmental conditions like air flow, temperature and
oxygen concentration.
Advantages of in vessel systems are;
process and odor control
faster throughput
lower labor costs
small area requirement.
 Vertical Plug-flow reactor
Shortcoming- difficulty of
adequately aerating the contents
throughout the column

 Horizontal plug-flow reactor

 Vertical reactor
 Based on combination of
forced aeration and stirring in a
cylindrical tank
 Tank equiped with a set of
augers supported on a bridge
attached to a central pivoting
structure
 Advantages
 Reduces moisture loss and water need
 Able to treat air for odor control
 Requires smallest area
 Regulatory process for disinfection
 Disadvantages
 Requires relatively high degree of expertise &
training
 Limits ability to handle wide range of materials
 Requires site with utilities
 High capital & high operating cost
A. Temperature
The compost pile passes through a wide range of temperatures over the course of the
active composting period.

The active composting period has three temperature ranges.

These ranges are defined by the types of microorganisms that dominate the
pile during those temperatures.

 Psychrophilic- below 50 degrees Fahrenheit

 mesophilic- between 50 and 105 degrees Fahrenheit,
 Thermophilic- above 105 degrees Fahrenheit
 The initial stage of composting is marked by either psychrophilic or mesophilic
temperatures depending on the ambient temperature and the temperatures of the
compost mix material.
 A short lag period is typical at the start of the composting process before the
temperature begins to rise rapidly.
 As the heat within the pile accumulates, the temperature of the compost pile begins
to rise.
 The temperature continues to increase steadily through the psychrophilic and
mesophilic temperature ranges as the microbial population increases and
diversifies.
 Depending on the operation, the compost pile typically takes from 2 to 3 days to
increase beyond mesophilic temperatures and reach the thermophilic stage of
composting.
 the pile becomes inhabited by a diverse population of micro-
organisms operating at peak growth and efficiency.
 This intense microbial activity sustains the vigorous heating
that is necessary for the destruction of pathogens, fly larvae,
and weed seeds.
 The temperatures continue to rise and peak at about 130 to
160 degrees Fahrenheit.
 microbial activity begins to decrease in response to a depletion
in readily degradable material and oxygen
 Micro-organisms degrade material by moving soluble components through
their body walls as is done for simple compounds or by using extracellular
enzymes to break the material down before it is taken into the cell body.

 If the temperature becomes too high, the enzymes responsible for the
breakdown denature and become non functional so that the micro-organisms
cannot get the nutrition they need to survive.
 Elevated temperature may not be lethal for all micro-organisms, but may
affect their efficiency and further contribute to the decrease in microbial
activity.
 As microbial activity decreases, more heat is lost from the pile than is
generated, and the pile begins to cool.
 The compost pile remains in the thermophilic range from 10 to 60 days,
depending on the operation.
 Once the temperature decreases to below 105 degrees Fahrenheit, the
curing period may begin or the pile may be aerated to reactivate active
composting.
 Curing is marked by a lower level of microbial activity and is responsible
for stabilizing the products result in from active composting period.
Stabilization includes:-
 further decomposition of organic acids and decay resistant
compounds,
 the formation of humic compounds,
 the formation of nitrate-nitrogen.
B) C:N ratio
The relative amounts of carbon and nitrogen present have the
greatest effect on the composting process and so are used
as the primary indicators of nutrient content.
 Carbon is used both as a source of energy and for growth
of microbes.
 In aerobic decomposition, part of the carbon is released as
CO2 while the rest is combined with nitrogen for microbial
growth.
 As a result, the carbon content of a compost pile is
continuously decreasing.
 Nitrogen is used for the synthesis of cellular material, amino
acids, and proteins and is continuously recycled through the
cellular material of the micro-organisms.
 Any nitrogen that is incorporated into the cells becomes
available again when the micro-organism dies.
 Because a large part of the carbon is continuously released
while the majority of the nitrogen is recycled, the C:N ratio
decreases over the composting period.
 If, the system experiences large nitrogen losses, the C:N ratio
can increase.
 Proper Carbon to Nitrogen (C:N) ratio is
necessary to optimize composting conditions
 C:N = 30:1 to 40:1 is optimum for

composting
 If C:N < 20:1, odors occur and nutrients may

be lost
 If C:N > 40:1, composting process slows

down
 C) Oxygen
 Oxygen is necessary for the survival of

aerobic microorganisms.
 If sufficient oxygen is not provided to sustain

aerobic microorganisms, anaerobic micro-

organisms begin to dominate the compost
pile, slow the composting process, and
produce odors.
 A minimum oxygen concentration of 5

percent is required to maintain aerobic

conditions.
A compost pile needs water because the
organisms grow in a moist environment
 Rapid decomposition requires optimum water
content
 40% - 50% moisture content (MC) is optimum
to provide organisms with both air and water
 If too dry, bacterial activity will
slow or cease
 If too wet, loss of air in the pile
will lead to anaerobic conditions

• If too dry, add water as you turn

the pile
• If too wet, add browns and/or turn
the pile
  Monitor the Compost Process
 Temperature – the primary way to determine if
the bugs are healthy
 Moisture & Air – easily assessed by inspecting the
quality of the compost pile
 Smell – Odor is a key indicator of whether
composting is progressing properly
A correctly built and managed composting pile
will:
 Reach high temperatures
 Destroy weed seeds
 Control pathogens
 Avoid odor problems
 Produce finished compost in 2 – 3 months
 Managing the composting operation to
optimize conditions requires many things:
 Site selection and design
 Composting methods
 Equipment and staffing
 Operational controls
 Monitoring & record keeping
 Site maintenance
 Regulatory Compliance
 “Ideal” Composting Location
 Meets all siting requirements
 Zoned correctly (commercial, industrial, agricultural,
etc.)
 Close to sources of organic materials
 In same area as compost markets
 Readily accessible for large vehicles
 Year-round accessibility
 Large enough with room to expand
 Level terrain
 Firm and stable surface to support heavy
equipment under varying weather conditions
 Native soil with moderate permeability (not
excessively or poorly drained)
 Visual buffer from neighbors
 Large volume source of water
 Co-located with related facility:
Landfill
Transfer station/MRF
Wastewater treatment plant
Agricultural operation (on-farm composting)
On-site at source of feedstock
 Benefits of Co-Locating
 Share existing infrastructure
 Better use of available processing space and/or
equipment
 Use existing traffic patterns and impacts
 Potential to take advantage of existing permits
 Potential use of some existing equipment
 Avoid creating impacts at a second site
 Components of Compost Facility Design
 Receiving and mixing area
 Pre-processing area for size-reducing
 Area to stockpile bulking agent
 Active composting and curing areas
 Surface water control and drainage structures
 Post-processing area for screening compost
 Area to store compost
 Other Site Features
 Gate and perimeter fence (or other barrier) to control access
to site
 Signage to control incoming traffic and public access
 Buffers to control off-site visual, noise, odor and dust
impacts
 Weather monitoring equipment
 Truck scale
 Equipment garage
 Office/employee facilities
 Analytical lab
 Site Design to Minimize Trouble
 Storm water management structure, i.e. drainage
swales and retention pond(s)
 Adequate space for equipment movement,
storage, safety and growth
 Logical process flow Structures
 Access and traffic management
 Use of visual barriers
 Annual Site Maintenance

 Inspect and repair working surfaces and

drainage structures
 Regrade to eliminate ruts and depressions
and maintain proper slope; bring in fill
material as needed
 Regrade, line and/or clear drainage swales,
channels and retention ponds
 Compost Monitoring
 Observations are the basis for decisions &

actions:
 Windrow turning

 Moisture adjustment
 Correcting problem
When composting is complete
 Measure temperatures at
least 2x weekly at various
depths (e.g., 1 & 3 ft) at
least every 75 feet along
the windrow
 Moisture Monitoring

 Use the “squeeze test”

 Moisture meters are

also available however
they require regular
calibration
 Moisture Management
If windrow is too dry:
 Add water when turning and rebuilding
 Moisten exterior before mixing into the core
 Shape windrow to increase rain infiltration

If windrow is too wet:

 Turn it to release excess water vapor
 Turn it on a dry sunny day
 Mix in more dry carbon material when

turning
 Shape pile to minimize infiltration
Windrow Shapes to Control Rain Infiltration
 Oxygen and Pore Space Monitoring

 Oxygen level in active

compost pile should be
≥5% (ambient O2 = 21%)
 Oxygen meters are
available
 Lab procedures exist to

measure pore space

 Monitoring these can be

beneficial but is not

essential
 Vector and Pest Prevention and Control
 Immediately mix wet putrescible materials to
correct C:N ratio and moisture content, and move
into compost windrow
 Cover windrow with >6 inch layer of well-aged
mulch or coarse compost
 Do not turn windrows during initial 10-14 days
 Maintain integrity and slope of working surfaces
and prevent standing water
 Odor Prevention and Control
 Build windrows with good porosity and not

too large
 If odors from turning are unavoidable, turn

windrows when wind is blowing away from

sensitive receptors
 Do not turn windrows during early morning

or evening
 Understand basic principles of atmospheric

dispersion
 Monitoring and Recordkeeping
 Ambient conditions : Daily
 Precipitation, high temperature, sky
conditions (wind speed & direction if
necessary)
 Odor conditions: Daily
 Windrow Temperature: 2x weekly
 Windrow Moisture: 1x weekly
 Fire Prevention
 Well-managed compost windrows will not

spontaneously ignite
 Fire is a possibility if moisture is <40%, piles

are very large (i.e. anaerobic) and very hot,

i.e. >230°C (>450°F)
 Other potential for fire is very dry material

and open flame or spark

 Site design elements:
Access for fire-fighting vehicles
 Source of water
 Secure site access to prevent vandalism
 Site Preparation
-preparation of the working area referred as
compost pad
-the area in which the windrows are constructed
and the associated maintenance equipment is
maneuvered
 Pad Specifications-influenced by
 the size of the operation,
 the nature of the wastes to be composted,
 the dictates of circumstances specific to it (e.g., proximity to
residential areas, land use, financial capacity).
 Utilities.

-Access should be available to water and

electricity
 Pad Surface and Construction
All working areas should be paved and be ready for use
regardless of weather.
The pad should be sufficiently rugged to support the combined
weight of the composting mass and associated materials
handling equipment.
 A variety of factors combine to determine the
dimensions of the area requirement:
 total volume of material to be accommodated
during all stages of the compost
 the configuration of the windrows,
 space required for the associated materials
handling equipment the maneuvering.
 A. Total Volume for Feedstock

B. Area Occupied Solely by Windrows.

Step 1. Determine the volume of each windrow.

Volume (m3) = cross-sectional area ( m2) × length of windrow ( m)

Cross-sectional area is a function of cross-sectional

configuration
 Step 2. Determine the number of windrows:

Step 3. Determine the area solely occupied by windrows:

Total windrow area (m2) = number of windrows × area per

windrow ( m2 per windrow
C. Maneuvering Area.
 Maneuvering area is the space required to maneuver the turning
and other equipment.
 Two such spaces must be provided for each windrow (one on

each side of a windrow).

Area of space (m2) = windrow/length (m) × width of space (m)

The width of a space depends upon the type of turning machine

 turned with a bucket loader -1.22m).

 self-propelled turner is used - 0.9 to 1.5 m

 tractor-assisted turner is used (two passes),- 1.8 to 2.4

The space between two individually aerated piles is about (6.1 m).
 D. Total Area of Pad.
is the sum of the area required for the
windrows plus that needed for maneuvering
the material (e.g., constructing windrows, turning the
composting mass, water trucks, force aeration
equipment,etc.).
 Leaves with a C/N= 50 is to be blended with
a waste activated sludge from a WWT plant
with a C/N ratio of 6.3. Determine the
portion of the activated sludge to be added to
1 kg of leaves to achieve a C/N ratio of 25
 Assume

- Moisture content of leaves= 50%

- Moisture content of sludge=75%
- Nitrogen content of sludge=5.6%
- Nitrogen content of leaves= 0.7%