Chapter 3

Stress and Deformation Analysis

1. Principle of Stress and Deformations

• Normal stresses
 Stress: Internal resistance offered by a unit area of material to
an external load.
 Perpendicular to element.
 Compressive stresses: crushing action. Negative by
convention.
 Tensile: pulling action. Positive by convention.
 Direct stress formula:
Stress
Introduction

What is Stress?

Normal Stress Units

 Example Stress Calculations

0.1 inch
Dia. Rod 1.0 inch
Dia. Rod
 Recall from Statics that a positive force acts in the positive direction with
respect to a coordinate axis.

P
x

Sign convention for stress using bars as examples

A positive stress is due to tension and elongation due to applied forces.

P P

A negative stress is due to compression and shortening due to applied forces.

P P
Elastic Deformation of an Axially Loaded Member
Constant Load and Cross-Sectional Area – Special Case
Assumptions:
Constant external force, which causes a constant internal force, P
Constant cross-sectional area, A
Homogeneous bar with a constant elastic modulus, E
• Normal stresses due to bending
=My/I
Where M= magnitude of the bending moment at the section
I= moment of inertia of the cross section with respect to its neutral axis
y= distance from the neutral axis to the outermost fiber of the beam cross section

 The above formula can only be applied to beam under the following
conditions:
 The beam must be in pure bending, i.e. there are no axial load and there is
no shearing stresses.
 The beam must not be subjected to any torque/ torsional load.
 The material of the beam must obey Hooke’s law, i.e. within the elastic
limit.
 The beam has constant cross-section and must be straight initially.
 The cross-section of the beam remains plane during bending.
 No failure due to buckling or wrinkling.
– Flexural Center for beams
 To ensure symmetrical bending i.e. no tendency to twist under
loading, action of load should pass through the line of symmetry
 Example:

 If there is no vertical axis of symmetry, example:

 Bending stress
In engineering practice, the machine parts or structural
members may be subjected to static or dynamic loads which
cause bending stresses in the sections besides other types of
stresses such as tensile, compressive and shearing stresses.

compression

Tension
 The intersection of the neutral surface with any normal cross
section of the beam is known as neutral axis. The stress
distribution of a beam is shown in Fig. The bending equation
is given by
M b E
 
whereI y R
M =Bending moment at the given section
sb = Bending stress
/ = Moment of inertia of the cross section about the
neutral axis
y = Distance from the neutral surface to the extreme fiber
E = Young's modulus of the material of the beam E
R = Radius of curvature of the beam b  y
From above equation, the bending stress is given by R
Since E and R are constant, therefore within elastic limit, the stress
at any point is directly proportional to y, i.e., the distance of the
point from the neutral axis.
Also from the above equation
M M M
b  y 
I I S
y
The ratio I/y is known as Section modulus and is denoted by S.
Notes :
1. The neutral axis of a section always passes through its
centroid.
2. In case of symmetrical sections such as circular, square or
rectangular, the neutral axis passes through its geometrical center
and the distance of extreme fiber from the neutral axis is y=dl2
where d = Diameter in case of circular section or depth in case of square or
rectangular section.

3. In case of unsymmetrical sections such as L. section or T.

section, the neutral axis does not pass through its geometrical
center.
• Shear stress
 Tendency to cut an element by exerting a stress on one
face and another on the parallel face in opposite direction.
 Created by direct shear, vertical shear in beams or by
torsion.
 Direct shear

(As = cross-sectional area parallel to applied force.)

– Shear stress due to Torsion
 A torque will twist a member, causing a shear stress in the member.
 Maximum shear stress due to torsion:

t = T r/ J
where
r= radius of the shaft to its outside surface
J= polar moment of inertia

See Appendix 1 for formulas for J

 General shear stress formula:

14
 In non-circular member:
τ max = T/Q
– Vertical Shearing Stress
 Beam carrying transverse loads experience shearing
forces (V) which causes shearing stress.

τ = VQ/It

Q = Ap y

16
 Torsional shear stress
When a machine member is
subjected to the action of two
equal and opposite couples
acting in parallel planes (or
torque or twisting moment),
then the machine member is
said to be subjected to torsion.
The stress set up by torsion is
known as torsional shear stress.
It is zero at the centriodal axis
and maximum at the outer
surface,
 Consider a shaft fixed at one end and subjected to a
torque at the other as shown below. The shear stress
at the surface of the shaft may be obtained from the
following equation,
T  Gθ
 
J r l
where q
T = Torque or twisting moment x
J = second moment of area of the
l
section about its polar axis or polar moment of inertia
 = Shear stress induced at the surface of the shaft or
maximum shear stress
r = Radius of the shaft T
G = Modulus of rigidity, also known as torsional rigidity of the
shaft material.
l = Length of the shaft
 = Angle of twist in radians on a length /.
 J
or T  
r

since J  I xx  I yy  d4 for cercular section
32
 d4 2 
 T     d 3
32 d 16
In case of hollow shaft with external diameter is do and internal
diameter is di
 do
J (d  d ) and
4
o i
4
r
32 2
 2   d o4  d i4 
 T    (d o  d i )   
4 4
  
32 d o 16  do 
 di
 d o (1  k ) ( substituting k  )
3 4

16 do
 The strength of the shaft means the maximum torque
transmitted by it.
Therefore, in order to design a shaft for strength, the above
equations are used.
The horse power transmitted by the shaft is given by
2 NT
P
4500
where T = Torque transmitted in kg-m
N = Speed in r.p.m.
In S.I. Units, horse power transmitted by a shaft (in
watts),
2 NT
P
60
where T = Torque transmitted in N-m. ,
• Stress elements
 Representation of stresses on an object by using a stress
element.
 A single, infinitesimally small cube
 By convention:
Tensile normal stresses are positive.
Compressive normal stresses are negative.
Shear stresses that tend to rotate element
clockwise are positive; otherwise negative.
Example(1) 20 mm square
Given a horizontal beam as sec.
shown , determine the max shear
stress due to bending on AC. A B C C

2.5 m 1.5 m
Solution
RB
M A 0
A
12.5 kN

B C
12.5(4)  2.5 RB
RB  20 kN
R A  20  12.5  7.5 kN 12.5 kN
RA
12.5 kN

Max. Shear  12.5 kN (B - C)

V 
7.5 kN
 Example(1) continued
20 mm
V .Q AP
 max 
I .t y
Q  Ap . y  (20  10)  5 N.A. 20 mm

 1000 mm3

 max
N.A.
20  (20) 3
I  13333.33 mm 4
12
12.5  1000  1000
 max   46.8 MPa
13333.33  20
Example(2)
For the Steel Beam Shown let F=12000 lb, a =4 ft , b=6 ft, Determine the Sec. modulus
S if limited bending stress d =30000 Psi.

A
N.A.

a b
R1 A R2
Sec. A-A
 12000 lb
Solution
F .b
R1   7200 lb
ab 4 6

F .a R1 R2
R2   4800 lb
ab
7200 lb 
M max  R1  a  28800 lb. ft V

M 28800  12 4800 lb
S   11 .5 in 3
d 30000
28800 lb.ft
From Table A16-3 & A16-4 , the highest
Sec.Typically preferred is the W8 x15wide
M 
flange shape With S= 11.8 in3
2. Beam Deflection
Equation for deflection in beams:

2
M d y
 2
EI dx
where M = bending moment
x = position on the beam measured along its length
y = deflection
• Relationship of load, vertical shearing force, bending moment,
slope of deflected beam shape and actual deflection curve of a
beam.
Visualization of Elastic Curves (continued)
Using bending moment diagrams together with an understanding of how the supports
contribute to deflection and slope, elastic curves can be sketched as shown in the
examples below:
Moment Curvature Relationship
• Beams with concentrated bending moments
 Beams with concentrated forces or distributed load, moment
diagrams are continuous.
 Machine elements that carry loads whose line of action is offset
from the centroidal axis of the beam, a concentrated moment is
exerted.
 Examples of such machine elements: cranks, bearing, helical
gears, etc.
 Next slide: an example showing a bending moment in a bell
crank.
• Principle of superposition
 Use to compute resulting normal stresses due to direct normal tensile/
compressive stress and bending stresses due to bending.

Mc F
  
I A

Example problem:
Refer to diagram next slide. F = 254 kN, angle θ = 30°. Beam
shape: S6 × 18.636 ; length = a = 609.6 mm.; e = 152.4 mm.
1. Draw free body diagram and shearing forces and bending
moment diagrams for the beam.
2. Compute maximum tensile and maximum compressive
stresses in the beam and show how they occur.
Solution for (1):

Solution for (2):

 y
Example(3) W=14 kN/m
Find the deflection for the beam Shown
Solution x
0.5 m
W .L W .L
R1  , R2  R1 R2
2 2
+3.5
R1 =3.5 kN , R2 =3.5 kN
V 
For the beam shown  -3.5
0 ≤x≤L
1-By method of super position Mmax

From App. (14.1) 

M
y
WX
24 EI

2 L X 2  X 3  L3 
=0

5WL 4
 
ymax  
384 EI

5  14  0.5 ymax
4
 m y
384 EI 
 2-By integration method

WL W
M X  X2
2 2
d2y
EI M
dX 2
dy
dX 
EI  M dx
WLx 2 Wx 3
   c1 ……………………………(1)
4 6
EI y   M dx

WLx 3 Wx 4
   c1x  c 2 ……………………………(2)
12 24

Boundary Conditions
At x =0 , y=0 C2 =0

At x =L , y=0
 WL3 WL4
   c1L  0
12 24
WL3
 c1   Substituting in (2)
24

WLx 3 Wx 4 WL3 x
EIy   
12 24 24

y 
WX
24 EI

2 L X 2  X 3  L3 
L
ymax at x 
2
WL  L3 L3 3
 ymax     L 
48 EI 2 8 

5WL4

384 EI
 3. Stress Concentration Factors

A stress concentration (often called stress raisers or stress risers) is a location in an object
where stress is concentrated. An object is stronger when force is evenly distributed over its
area, so a reduction in area, e.g., caused by a crack, results in a localized increase in
stress. A material can fail, via a propagating crack, when a concentrated stress exceeds the
material's theoretical cohesive strength. The real fracture strength of a material is always
lower than the theoretical value because most materials contain small cracks .

Stress concentration is the accumulation of stress in a body due to sudden change in its
geometry. When there is a sudden change in the geometry of the body due to cracks sharp
corners, holes and decrease in the cross section area, then there is an increase in the
localized stress near these cracks, sharp corners, holes, and decreased cross section area.
The body tends to fail from these places where the stress concentration is more. So to
prevent a body from getting failed, the stress concentration should be avoided or reduced.
• Stress concentrators
 Any geometric discontinuities will cause the actual
maximum stress to be higher than the calculated value.
• Stress concentration factor, Kt
 Factor by which the actual maximum stress exceeds the
nominal stress (σnom , τnom ) predicted by calculations. That is:

 max Kt nom

 max Kt nom

Kt depends on the shape of discontinuity, the specific

geometry and the type of stress.
Example:
Diagram shows a round bar subjected to an axial force, F. Compute
maximum stress.
Given Kt = 1.60, F = 9800N

σnom = F/A = ( 9800N)/ [π( 10mm)2/4] = 124.8 MPa

σmax = Kt σnom = (1.60)(124.8 MPa) = 199.6 MPa