4 - Common Fallacies-21
4 - Common Fallacies-21
4 - Common Fallacies-21
TYPE OF FALLACIES
By:
Syed Noman Ali
Philosopher
2
Questionable Cause
The word “fallacy” may derive from the Latin word fallere meaning, “to
deceive, to trip, to lead into error or to trick.” The word may also derive
from the Greek phelos, meaning “deceitful.”
What is Fallacy?
4
Definitions
5
Type of Fallacies
1. Fallacy of Presumptions
2. Fallacy of Relevance
3. Fallacy of Defective induction
4. Fallacy of Ambiguity
1. Fallacies of Presumption
In fallacies of presumption, too much is assumed in the premises. The
inference to the conclusion depends mistakenly on these unwarranted
assumptions:
• P1: Complex question/Presupposition
• P2: Begging the question/Circular argument
P3: False dichotomy/Dilemma/Either or
2. Fallacies of Relevance
In these fallacies, the premises of the argument are simply not relevant to
the conclusion. They may deceive:
• A17: Equivocation
• A18: Amphiboly
• A19: Accent
• A 20: Composition
A 21: Division
10
Example
• Do you still cheat on your exams?
• You must refuse to answer either “yes” or “no” because either answer would
imply that you are a cheater. That is, you may say, “Your question assumes
that I am a cheater, and I am not.”
I avoid those meetings; I don't want to be brainwashed.
“Murder is morally wrong. So active euthanasia is morally wrong.”
12
Example
Osama is a good communicator because he speaks effectively.”
No cats are dogs, No dogs are cats.
Critical thinking is that type of thinking in which we think critically.
13
Example
We are completely free or everything is determined.
You are either with us or against us.
Either you agree with me or you hate me."
Either people will support the building of the dam, or they are anti-
nationalist.
14
Example
If you don’t give me an A, I’ll lose my GPA.
If you don’t support my plan, the enemy will be crushed.
Someone as smart as you can surely your argument is acceptable.
"Politician X will take away your freedom of speech! Never trust on him.
15
R5-Bandwagon
Everyone believes that popular argument is correct.
Example
• 90% people like Colgate so you too.
• Facebook has more users than any other social media site. Thus, Facebook
must be the best choice.
16
Example
"I was surprised you agreed with her. She's kind of an extremist.
17
R7-Accident
Over-generalization is mistakenly applied everywhere from one. It is committed
when a general rule is applied to a specific case.
Example
Someone talking loud in operation theatre because of freedom of speech.
18
Example
• “Hector’s book, due out next February, is nothing but a lame attempt to stir
up business for the organization she chairs.”
• You say you want to reform the criminal justice system. What, do you want
to free all the criminals?"
19
R9-Missing point
Everyone believes that popular argument is correct.
Example
• 90% people like Colgate so you too.
• Facebook has more users than any other social media site. Thus, Facebook
must be the best choice.
20
R 10-Red herring
It is distraction from main argument and an emotionally charged issue brought
up to divert attention from something the manipulator wants to avoid.
Example
• "You asked me why the unemployment rate has risen again, but I'll tell you
what's affecting this country's morale in even worse ways than that.“
• This medication is proven to reduce risk of heart disease. Heart disease can
be caused by smoking. Smoking also causes cancer.
• There is a good deal of talk these days about the need to eliminate
pesticides from our fruits and vegetables. But many of these foods are
essential to our health. Carrots are an excellent source of vitamin A, broccoli
is rich in iron, and oranges and grapefruit have lots of vitamin C.
21
Example
• An appeal to the opinions of Darwin, a towering authority in biology, would
be fallacious, as would be an appeal to the opinions of a great artist such as
Picasso to settle an economic dispute.
• We are told by Mr. Afridi to use a particular brand of Shampoo to remove
dandruff.
• Mr. Waseem Akram to use or endorse a particular detergent.
22
D12-Ignorance of fact
• The truth of a claim is established only on the basis of lack of evidence
against it.
For example
• Unicorns exist because there is no evidence against such a claim.
• Aliens have never landed on Earth, or prove they have.
• Crimes of theft and robbery have been increasing at an alarming rate lately.
The conclusion is obvious: We must reinstate the death penalty immediately.
23
D13-Hasty generalization
Jump to the conclusion quickly. An argument based on insufficient evidence,
often caused by a sample which is too small or is not representative of the
whole population.
Example
• If someone asserts that all people from Pakistan must be bad drivers
because the two people they've met from that country were awful driver and
they are Pakistani.
• My friend Amy recently traveled on an airplane for the first time, and the flight
attendant was impolite and did not provide good service. This shows that
everyone who works on an airplane is unkind and unhelpful.
24
Example
• “Guns are like hammers—they’re both tools with metal parts that could be
used to kill someone. And yet it would be ridiculous to restrict the purchase
of hammers
26
Example
• If you ‘ll not pay credit card bill, you’ll be behind on all of your bills and you’ll
gradually lose control of your finances. In time, your telephone and electricity
will be turned off, and you’ll eventually get evicted from your apartment. You'll
live out the rest of your life as a homeless person, wandering the streets.
• "If I give you a raise, then I have to give everyone a raise, and then the
company will go bankrupt.”
27
A17-Equivocation =
Two or more meanings are used and moves from one meaning of a word to a
different meaning of the same word.
Example
• Law can be replaced by legislation so law of gravity too
• Giving money to charity is the right thing to do. So charities have a right to
our money.
• Knowledge is power; Power is corrupt so Knowledge is corrupt.
• An athlete is human being, good athlete is good human being.
28
A 18-Amphiboly
The combination of words interpreted more. A poor construction involve syntax,
or word or phrase order.
Example
• 50% discount up to
• 99.99%
• 2980
• The governor says, 'Save soap and waste paper. ' So soap is more valuable
than paper.
29
A19-Accent
Different emphasis on same words. When speaking we can emphasize or
accent a word or phrase and change its meaning.
Example
What a shot ?
What a shot !
Take screen shot
Take vaccine first shot.
30
Application of Fallacies
• TVC commercial
• Social media content
• Political support
• Media programs
• Newspaper and articles
• Movies script
• Novel stories
• Marketing campaign
• Social media trends
32
PRACTICE
Examples
33
Practice
1. My roommate said her philosophy class was hard, and the one I'm in is hard,
too. All philosophy classes must be hard!“.
a) Appeal to emotion
b) Bandwagon
c) Hasty generalization
d) Ignorance of fact
Answer : C
34
Practice
2. The meteorologist predicted the wrong amount of rain for May. Obviously the
meteorologist is unreliable.
a. Hasty generalization
b. Ignorance of fact
c. Appeal to threat
d. Inappropriate authority
Answer : A
35
Practice
3. I'm not a doctor, but I can take it from me that when you need effective take
safe pain killer.
a. Hasty generalization
b. Ignorance of fact
c. Appeal to threat
d. Inappropriate authority
Answer : D
36
Practice
4. "I know the exam is graded based on performance, but you should give
me an A. My cat has been sick, my car broke down, and I've had a cold, so
it was really hard for me to study!“
a. Hasty generalization
b. Ignorance of fact
c. Appeal to emotion and pity
d. Inappropriate authority
Answer : C
37
Practice
5. Giving money to charity is the right thing to do. So charities have a right to
our money
a. Hasty generalization
b. Ignorance of fact
c. Appeal to threat
d. Equivocation
Answer : D
38
Practice
Why should we put people on trial when we know they are guilty?
a. Complex question
b. Ignorance of fact
c. Appeal to emotion
d. Begging the question