Spacetime is a 4D

⃗
𝑒𝑡 ⃗
𝑒
Manifold
𝑧

⃗
𝑒𝑥
⃗
𝑒𝑦
Relativity 107:
General Relativity
a. Equivalence Principle
b. Manifolds
c. Curvature
d. Newton-Cartan Theory (Curved Newtonian Gravity)
e. Energy–Momentum Tensor
f. Einstein Field Equations
 !! Warning !!
• This video is a brief survey of:
• Manifolds
• Covariant derivatives
• Geodesics
• I’m covering a lot of topics in a shallow way in a
very small amount of time.
• I expect you have only a basic idea of what these
terms mean.
 !! Warning !!
If you need more time with these topics…
I have several videos in “Tensor Calculus” video series.
(link in description!)
Einstein Summation Notation

⃗
𝑉 =𝑉 ⃗
𝑒𝜇
𝜇
Einstein Summation Notation
⃗
𝑉 =𝑉 ⃗
0 1
𝑒 0 +𝑉 ⃗
2
𝑒 1 +𝑉 ⃗
3
𝑒 2 +𝑉 ⃗𝑒3

𝜇
¿𝑉 ⃗
𝑒𝜇
 Equivalence Principle:
In small regions of spacetime, falling inside a freely-falling box
feels exactly like floating in deep space in an inertial frame.

Box + Ball Box + Ball

inertial in
in space Free-fall
 Equivalence Principle:
In small regions of spacetime, sitting on a gravitational mass
feels exactly like being in a rocket that’s accelerating.

gravity
acceleration
Equivalence Principle:
• In small regions of spacetime, we can never detect the
existence of gravity
• Locally, we can always attribute the effects of gravity to
being in an inertial or non-inertial frame
Equivalence Principle:
• We can only detect the existence of gravity in large
regions of spacetime
• Tidal forces (when pull of gravity is non-uniform)

Tidal Forces
Gravity can only be detected in large regions of spacetime.
General Relativity only applies in large regions of spacetime.

In small/local regions of spacetime, General Relativity disappears!!

we’re left with only Special Relativity.

General Relativity is locally indistinguishable from Special Relativity.

Curved Spacetime is locally indistinguishable from Flat Spacetime.
 Manifolds

Manifold = curved space that looks

flat in a small local region.
 Surface of the Earth is a manifold.

Globally, surface is curved. Up close, the surface looks flat.

Sphere Saddle Cylinder
(Hyperbolic Paraboloid)

2D Manifolds
all look like flat 2D plane up close
Manifold with concept of distance between two points…
= “Riemannian Manifold”
We measure distances with a metric function

≥0
In Special Relativity (relativity 104e)
• (time-like)
Pseudo-metric
+ Manifold
= Pseudo-Riemannian
Manifold
In General Relativity… Spacetime is a…
• Manifold = curved space that’s locally flat
• (equivalence principle)
• 4D Manifold
• (1 time dimension + 3 space dimensions)
• Pseudo-Riemannian Manifold
• (spacetime metric can measure positive, zero,
negative squared lengths)
(time-like) measure proper time
paths of light beams
(time-like) measure proper lengths
To get the length of a curve:
Integrate over lengths of tangent vectors.

∫ ‖ ‖ ⃗
𝑑𝑆
𝑑𝜆
𝑑𝜆

(see Relativity 105d)

Extrinsic Geometry: Intrinsic Geometry:
look at surface
“from the outside”
Extrinsic Geometry:
look at surface
“from the outside”
Extrinsic Geometry:
look at surface
“from the outside” • We can define an origin point
• Can use position vectors
⃗
𝑅 • Can define tangent vectors
• Origin, , don’t live on the
surface… they live in the outside
origin 3D space
Extrinsic Geometry: Intrinsic Geometry:
look at surface look at surface
“from the outside” “from the inside”
 With intrinsic geometry…
we can’t measure size using our eyes!

𝑠=∫ √ 𝑔 𝜇𝜈 𝑉 𝑉 𝑑 𝜆
We must calculate distances 𝜇 𝜈
using a formula that involves
the metric.

The metric is the only thing we can rely on

to have an accurate description of distances.
Extrin
sic Plane Sphere Saddle Cylinder

Plane Sphere Saddle Cylinder

sic
Intrin
Extrin
sic Plane Sphere Saddle Cylinder

Plane Sphere Saddle Cylinder

sic
Intrin
Extrin
sic Plane Sphere Saddle Cylinder

Different Lengths
Plane Sphere Saddle Cylinder
sic
Intrin
 ics Plane Sphere Saddle Cylinder

[ 1 0
[] 1 0
][ 1 +𝑣
2
𝑢𝑣
[1
]0 0
]
Metr

2
0 ( sin 𝑢 ) 𝑢𝑣 1 +𝑢 2
0 1 1
Different Lengths
Plane Sphere Saddle Cylinder
sic
Intrin
General Relativity (1915)
• Spacetime manifold Intrinsic
• 4D spacetime not embedded in higher-
dimensional space Spacetime metric

[ ]
𝑔0 0 𝑔0 1 𝑔0 2 𝑔0 3
𝑔10 𝑔1 1 𝑔1 2 𝑔1 3
𝑥 𝑔20 𝑔2 1 𝑔2 2 𝑔 23
𝑐𝑡 𝑦 𝑔30 𝑔3 1 𝑔3 2 𝑔3 3

Einstein Field Equations

𝑧 1
𝑅 𝜇𝜈 − 𝑅 𝑔 𝜇𝜈 + Λ 𝑔𝜇𝜈 =
2
8𝜋𝐺
𝑐
4
Extrinsic Geometry:
look at surface
“from the outside”
origin
⃗
𝑅
⃗
𝑅
origin position tangent
vector vector
Intrinsic Geometry:
look at surface
“from the inside”
origin

⃗
𝑅
origin position tangent
vector vector
Intrinsic Geometry:
Vectors (straight arrows)
look at surface
leave the manifold surface
“from the inside”
Intrinsic Geometry:
look at surface
“from the inside”
origin

⃗
𝑆
origin 4- position
vector
Extrinsic Geometry:
look at surface
“from the outside”
origin
⃗
𝑅
𝜆 ⃗
𝑅
origin position tangent
vector vector
Intrinsic Geometry:
look at surface
“from the inside”
origin

𝜆
⃗
𝑅
origin 4- position tangent
vector vector
Linear combination
 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝝏 𝑑 𝑦 𝝏
= +
𝑑 𝜆 𝑑 𝜆 𝝏 𝒙 𝑑 𝜆 𝝏𝒚

( 𝑥 ( 𝜆) , 𝑦 ( 𝜆) )
 Tangent spaces
Manifold – Extrinsic View
point

Tangent
space
(where tangent vectors
at this point live)
Manifold Tangent spaces
– Intrinsic View

𝑇𝑝𝑀 𝑞 𝑇𝑞𝑀
𝜆
𝑎
𝑇𝑎𝑀
 𝜕
𝜕 𝜕𝑥 𝜕
𝜕 𝑐𝑡
𝜕𝑦
Tangent Spaces
𝜕
𝜕𝑧 in Spacetime
𝑞
𝑇𝑞𝑀
 𝜕
𝜕 𝜕𝑥
1
𝜕
0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
2

Tangent Spaces
𝜕
𝜕𝑥
3 in Spacetime
𝑞
𝑇𝑞𝑀
4-Velocity

proper time
𝜕
𝜕 𝜕𝑥
1
𝜕
0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
2

Tangent Spaces
𝜕
𝜕𝑥
3 in Spacetime
𝑞
𝑇𝑞𝑀
Derivative Operators = Basis Vectors
How vectors change across a manifold?

How to take derivatives of vectors in a

vector field?
(relativity 105e)
Covariant derivative in flat space (ignoring )
(relativity 105e)
Covariant derivative in flat space (ignoring )

Einstein sum notation

(works in any dimension)
Covariant derivative notation

Vector Field

¿ ∇⃗ ⃗
𝑉
𝑊

Rate-of-Change
Direction
¿ 𝑎 ∇⃗ ⃗
𝑉 +𝑏 ∇ ⃗
𝑉
𝑊 ⃗
𝐴

∇⃗ ( ⃗
𝑉 + ⃗
𝐵 )
𝑊

¿ ∇⃗ ⃗
𝑉 +∇ ⃗
𝐵
𝑊 ⃗
𝑊
∇⃗ ( 𝑎 ⃗
𝑉 )
𝑊
Covariant derivative notation

Vector Field

¿ ∇⃗ ⃗
𝑉
𝑒 𝜇

Rate-of-Change
Direction
Covariant derivative notation
(Actual vector/arrow)

⃗
𝑒𝜇
(Actual vector/arrow) (Vector components)

⃗
𝑒2 ⃗
𝑒1
⃗
𝑒3
⃗
𝑒0
⃗
𝑒𝜇
Comparing vectors in Flat Space

basepoint
Comparing vectors in Curved Space
Comparing vectors in Curved Space
Parallel Transport:
march along a curve,
keeping the vector as
straight as possible
Comparing vectors in Curved Space
Parallel Transport:
march along a curve,
keeping the vector as
straight as possible
Comparing vectors in Curved Space
Parallel Transport:
march along a curve,
keeping the vector as
straight as possible
Comparing vectors in Curved Space
1. Parallel transport red
vector to blue vector so
they are in the same
tangent space
Comparing vectors in Curved Space
1. Parallel transport red
vector to blue vector so
they are in the same
tangent space
2. Subtract the vectors to
see if they are different.
Comparing vectors in Curved Space
1. Parallel transport red
𝑉 vector to blue vector so
they are in the same
tangent space
2. Subtract the vectors to
𝜆 see if they are different.
Comparing vectors in Curved Space
1. Parallel transport red
𝑉 vector to blue vector so
they are in the same
same
tangent space
2. Subtract the vectors to
𝜆 see if they are different.

∇ ⃗
𝑉 = ⃗0
𝑑
𝑑𝜆
Comparing vectors in Curved Space
1. Parallel transport red
𝑉 vector to blue vector so
they are in the same
tangent space
2. Subtract the vectors to
𝜆 see if they are different.
Comparing vectors in Curved Space
1. Parallel transport red
𝑉 vector to blue vector so
they are in the same
tangent space
2. Subtract the vectors to
𝜆 see if they are different.

∇ ⃗
𝑉 ≠ 0⃗
𝑑
𝑑𝜆
Comparing vectors in Curved Space
𝑉 Covariant Derivative
= how much a vector
deviates away from
parallel transport
𝜆
∇ ⃗
𝑉 ≠ 0⃗
𝑑
𝑑𝜆
Perfect parallel transport Move away from parallel
= zero covariant derivative transport = non-zero
covariant derivative
𝑉 𝑉

𝜆 𝜆
Perfect parallel transport
= zero covariant derivative

𝜆
Perfect parallel transport
= zero covariant derivative

𝜆
Perfect parallel transport Move away from parallel
= zero covariant derivative transport = non-zero
covariant derivative
𝑉 𝑉

𝜆 𝜆
Perfect parallel transport Move away from parallel
= zero covariant derivative transport = non-zero
covariant derivative
𝑉 𝑉

𝜆 𝜆
Parallel transport is not enough to solve for the
Christoffel Symbols in the covariant derivative.

Need two additional facts:

1. Metric Compatibility
2. Torsion-Free
Fact #1
When we parallel transport
a pair of vectors…
Their lengths and the angle
between them should stay
the same.
𝜆

“Metric Compatibility”
Fact #2

Closed
4-sided gap
shape

“Torsion Free”
Fact #1 – Metric Compatibility

∇⃗
𝑊
( ⃗
𝑉 1 ⋅ ⃗
𝑉 2 ) = ( ∇⃗
𝑊
⃗
𝑉 1 ) ⋅ ⃗
𝑉 2 + ⃗
𝑉 1 ⋅ ( ∇ ⃗
𝑊
⃗
𝑉 2)

⃗
Parallel
𝑉2 ⃗
𝑉1 transport:

⃗
𝑊
Fact #1 – Metric Compatibility

∇⃗
𝑊
( ⃗
𝑉 1 ⋅ ⃗
𝑉 2 ) = ( ∇⃗
𝑊
⃗
𝑉 1 ) ⋅ ⃗
𝑉 2 + ⃗
𝑉 1 ⋅ ( ∇ ⃗
𝑊
⃗
𝑉 2)
Fact #2 – Torsion-Free

Closed
4-sided
𝛼 𝛼
shape
Γ 𝜇𝜈 =Γ 𝜈𝜇
Metric Compatibility + Torsion-Free Solve for
𝛼 𝛼
𝜕 𝜎 𝑔𝜇 𝜈=Γ 𝜎𝜇 𝑔𝛼 𝜈 + Γ 𝜎𝜈 𝑔 𝜇𝛼
𝛼 𝛼
𝜕𝜈 𝑔 𝜎 𝜇=Γ 𝜈𝜎 𝑔𝛼 𝜇+ Γ 𝜈𝜇 𝑔𝜎 𝛼
𝛼 𝛼
𝜕 𝜇 𝑔𝜈 𝜎 =Γ 𝜇𝜈 𝑔𝛼 𝜎 + Γ 𝜇𝜎 𝑔𝜈 𝛼
Metric Compatibility + Torsion-Free Solve for
𝛼 𝛼
𝜕 𝜎 𝑔𝜇𝜈 =Γ 𝜎𝜇 𝑔 𝛼𝜈 + Γ 𝜎𝜈 𝑔𝜇 𝛼 Torsion-Free
𝛼 𝛼
𝜕𝜈 𝑔 𝜎𝜇=Γ 𝜈𝜎 𝑔𝛼 𝜇+ Γ 𝜈𝜇 𝑔𝜎 𝛼
𝛼 𝛼
Dot product
𝜕 𝜇 𝑔𝜈𝜎 =Γ 𝜇𝜈 𝑔𝛼 𝜎 + Γ 𝜇𝜎 𝑔𝜈 𝛼 is symmetric
Metric Compatibility + Torsion-Free Solve for
𝛼 𝛼
𝜕 𝜎 𝑔𝜇𝜈 =Γ 𝜎𝜇 𝑔 𝛼𝜈 + Γ 𝜎𝜈 𝑔𝜇 𝛼 Torsion-Free
𝛼 𝛼
𝜕𝜈 𝑔 𝜎𝜇=Γ 𝜈𝜎 𝑔𝛼 𝜇+ Γ 𝜈𝜇 𝑔𝜎 𝛼
𝛼 𝛼
Dot product
𝜕 𝜇 𝑔𝜈𝜎 =Γ 𝜇𝜈 𝑔𝛼 𝜎 + Γ 𝜇𝜎 𝑔𝜈 𝛼 is symmetric

𝑔 𝜇𝜈 =⃗
𝑒𝜇 ⋅ ⃗
𝑒𝜈 =⃗
𝑒𝜈 ⋅ ⃗
𝑒𝜇 =𝑔 𝜈 𝜇
Metric Compatibility + Torsion-Free Solve for
𝛼 𝛼
𝜕 𝜎 𝑔𝜇𝜈 =Γ 𝜎𝜇 𝑔 𝛼𝜈 + Γ 𝜎𝜈 𝑔𝜇 𝛼 Torsion-Free
𝛼 𝛼
𝜕𝜈 𝑔 𝜎𝜇=Γ 𝜈𝜎 𝑔𝛼 𝜇+ Γ 𝜈𝜇 𝑔𝜎 𝛼
𝛼 𝛼
Dot product
𝜕 𝜇 𝑔𝜈𝜎 =Γ 𝜇𝜈 𝑔𝛼 𝜎 + Γ 𝜇𝜎 𝑔𝜈 𝛼 is symmetric

𝛼
𝜕 𝜎 𝑔𝜇𝜈 +𝜕𝜈 𝑔 𝜎𝜇 − 𝜕𝜇 𝑔 𝜈𝜎 =2 Γ 𝜈𝜎 𝑔𝛼 𝜇
Metric Compatibility + Torsion-Free Solve for
𝛼
2Γ 𝜈𝜎 𝑔 𝛼 𝜇 =𝜕𝜎 𝑔𝜇𝜈 + 𝜕𝜈 𝑔 𝜎𝜇 −𝜕 𝜇 𝑔𝜈𝜎

Inverse metric:
The Covariant Derivative that is:
• Metric compatible:
• Torsion-Free:
… is called the “Levi-Civita Connection”
( also called “connection coefficients”)
 Covariant
derivative
“connects”
tangent spaces.

𝑝 𝑎 𝑇𝑎𝑀
𝑇𝑝𝑀
 Covariant
derivative
“connects”
tangent spaces.

𝑝 𝑎 𝑇𝑎𝑀
𝑇𝑝𝑀
Geodesic (relativity 105f)
= path of a particle when 𝑐𝑡
no forces acting on it
𝑥
4-acceleration

(proper time) (includes paths of light)

Flat space(time) Manifolds

Geodesic =
path of a vector parallel
transported parallel to itself
Geodesic:
path resulting from
parallel transporting a
vector parallel to itself.

(result is straightest
possible path on a
curved surface)
Geodesic Equation Geodesic Equation
(abstract version) (coordinate version)
2 𝜎 𝜇 𝜈
𝑑 𝑥 𝜎 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
+ Γ 𝜇𝜈 =0
𝑑𝜆
2
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝜆

(expand vector in a basis)

 𝜎
∇⃗
𝑒 ( ⃗
𝑒 𝜈 ) =Γ
𝜇𝜈
⃗
𝑒𝜎
𝜇

𝜇 𝜎 𝜇 𝜈 𝜎
0=𝑉 𝜕𝜇 𝑉 +𝑉 𝑉 Γ 𝜇𝜈
⃗
0=∇𝑉⃗
⃗
𝑉 = [ 𝑉 𝜇
𝜕𝜇 𝑉 𝜎
+ Γ 𝜎
𝜇𝜈 𝑉 𝜇
𝑉 𝜈
] ⃗
𝑒 𝜎
⃗
0=∇𝑉⃗
⃗
𝑉 = [ 𝑉 𝜇
𝜕𝜇 𝑉 𝜎
+ Γ 𝜎
𝜇𝜈 𝑉 𝜇
𝑉 𝜈
] ⃗
𝑒 𝜎

2 𝜎 𝜇 𝜈
𝑑 𝑥 𝜎 𝑑 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0= + Γ 𝜇𝜈
𝑑𝜆
2
𝑑𝜆 𝑑 𝜆
⃗
0=∇𝑉⃗
⃗
𝑉 = [ 𝑉 𝜇
𝜕𝜇 𝑉 𝜎
+ Γ 𝜎
𝜇𝜈 𝑉 𝜇
𝑉 𝜈
] ⃗
𝑒 𝜎
⃗
0=∇𝑉⃗
⃗
𝑉 = [ 𝑉 𝜇
𝜕𝜇 𝑉 𝜎
+ Γ 𝜎
𝜇𝜈 𝑉 𝜇
𝑉 𝜈
] ⃗
𝑒 𝜎

2 𝜎 𝜇 𝜈
𝑑 𝑥 𝜎 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0= + Γ 𝜇𝜈
𝑑𝜆
2
𝑑𝜆 𝑑 𝜆
Geodesic Equation (component form)
 Geodesic Equation

If is “time-like” ()
• worldlines of massive particles
• particles are in free-fall (no forces, affected by only gravity)
• longest possible proper time between two events (twin paradox)
 Geodesic Equation

If is “time-like” ()
• worldlines of massive particles
• particles are in free-fall (no forces, affected by only gravity)
• longest possible proper time between two events (twin paradox)
Geodesic Non-Geodesic
(longest proper (shorter proper
time ) time )
 Geodesic Equation

If is “time-like” ()
• worldlines of massive particles
• particles are in free-fall (no forces, affected by only gravity)
• longest possible proper time between two events (twin paradox)

If is “light-like”/“null” ()
• worldlines of massless particles (light beams)
Equivalence Principle:
Gravity can only be detected in large regions of spacetime.
In small/local regions of spacetime, Gravity is not detectable!

Curved Spacetime of General Relativity

is locally indistinguishable from
the Flat Spacetime of Special Relativity.
Manifold = curved space that is locally flat.
In General Relativity… Spacetime is a…
4D Pseudo-Riemannian Manifold
• spacetime metric can measure positive, zero,
negative squared lengths

(time-like) measure proper time

paths of light beams
(time-like) measure proper lengths
 ⃗
𝑆
Position Tangent
vectors vectors
Linear Combinations

5⃗
𝑒 0 +3 ⃗
𝑒1
Parallel Transport
= carrying a vector along
a path while holding it as
straight as possible.

𝜆
Parallel Transport
= carrying a vector along
a path while holding it as
straight as possible.
Covariant Derivative
(levi-civita connection) 𝜆
= measures how much a
vector deviate away
from parallel transport ∇ ⃗
𝑉
𝑑
𝑑𝜆
Geodesic Curve
= parallel transporting a
vector along itself 𝜆
(“straightest” possible path)

𝑑 ⃗ ⃗
∇ 𝑑 =∇ ⃗𝑉 𝑉 = 0
𝑑𝜆
𝑑𝜆
 !! Warning !!
• I covered this stuff really quickly:
• Manifolds
• Covariant derivatives
• Geodesics
• Requires a few hours of lectures and examples to
fully understand.
 !! Warning !!
If you need more time with these topics…
I have several videos in “Tensor Calculus” video series.
(link in description!)
Next Video:

𝑅
𝛼
𝜇𝛽𝜈 𝑅 𝜇𝜈
Riemann Ricci
Curvature Curvature
Tensor Tensor