Ultrasound

Techniques
Wave
❑“A wave can be described as a disturbance that travels through a medium from one location to
another location” OR “Wave is a flow or transfer of energy in the form of oscillation through a
medium – space or mass”

❑For an example, when a pebble is thrown in a pond, it creates a disturbance and forms ripples which
travel together as a front in a straight-line direction, or the waves may be circular waves that originate
from the point where the disturbances occurs in the pond.
TYPES OF WAVES

Based on the orientation of particle motion and direction of energy, there are three categories:

❑Mechanical waves
❑Electromagnetic waves
❑Matter waves
 • movement of the particle are parallel to the motion of
the energy i.e. the displacement of the medium is in the
same direction to which the wave is moving
Longitudinal • .Example – Sound Waves, Pressure Waves.
waves

• When the movement of the particles is at right angles

or perpendicular to the motion of the energy
• Light is an example of a transverse wave. Some of the
Transverse other examples are – ‘Polarized’ waves &
waves Electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic Waves
❑Electromagnetic waves are created by a fusion of electric and magnetic fields. The light you see,
the colors around you are visible because of electromagnetic waves.
❑One interesting property here is that unlike mechanical waves, electromagnetic waves do not need a
medium to travel. All electromagnetic waves travel through a vacuum at the same speed, 299,792,458
ms-1.
❑different types of electromagnetic waves:
•Microwaves
•X-ray
•Radio waves
•Ultraviolet waves
Properties of Waves
Amplitude
❑ Amplitude of a wave is defined as the distance from the rest position of the vibrating particle of the
medium to the highest point of the crest or the lowest point of the trough. It is denoted with a or A and
measured in meter.

❑It is directly related to the amount of energy carried by a wave.

Wavelength
❑The wavelength, λ, of a wave is the distance from any point on one wave to the same point on the
next wave along. (The symbol is a Greek letter, 'lambda’.)

❑ To avoid confusion, it is best to measure wavelength from the top of a crest to the top of the next
crest, or from the bottom of a trough to the bottom of the next trough. Wavelength is measured in
meter.
Since a longitudinal wave does not contain crests and troughs, its wavelength
must be measured differently. A longitudinal wave consists of a repeating pattern
of compressions and rarefactions. Thus, the wavelength is commonly measured
as the distance from one compression to the next adjacent compression or the
distance from one rarefaction to the next adjacent rarefaction.
Frequency
◦ The frequency, f, of a wave is the number The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz), i.e., one
of waves passing a point in a certain hertz is equal to one wave per second. For
time. We normally use a time of one water waves and sound waves the unit hertz
second, so we can say, “the number of is usually good enough but radio and TV
waves passing a point in one second is
called frequency of the wave”. waves have such a high frequency that the
kilohertz (kHz) or even the megahertz
(MHz) are better units.
1 kHz = 1,000 Hz
1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz
Time Period
❑The period of a wave is the time for a particle on a medium to make one complete vibrational cycle.
In other words it can be defined as the time taken by a wave to travel the distance of a complete
wavelength.

❑It is simply reciprocal of the frequency (1/f).

❑Unit of time period is second.

❑𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑇 = 1/ 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑓)

Wave Speed/ Wave Velocity
❑ the distance travelled by the crests or trough in a given time interval.

❑speed = distance/time

❑speed of a wave is also the wavelength/period (T).

❑ Speed (v) = Wavelength (λ) • Frequency (f)

Sound
a mechanical wave that results from the back and forth vibration of the particles of the medium
through which the sound wave is moving. If a sound wave is moving from left to right through air,
then particles of air will be displaced both rightward and leftward as the energy of the sound wave
passes through it. The motion of the particles is parallel (and anti-parallel) to the direction of the
energy transport. This is what characterizes sound waves in air as longitudinal waves. Because of the
longitudinal motion of the air particles, there are regions in the air where the air particles are
compressed together and other regions where the air particles are spread apart. These regions are
known as compressions and rarefactions respectively. The compressions are regions of high air
pressure while the rarefactions are regions of low air pressure.
As the sound wave passes through material the particles vibrate back and forth. In some areas
the particles are close together (compression) and in others they are further apart (rarefaction).
A sound wave can also be represented sinusoidally with the peaks and troughs of the wave
corresponding to the areas of maximum compression and rarefaction.
Types of Sound Waves
According to audibility, more precisely frequency limit, sound
waves are grouped in three classes:

1. Infrasound,

2. Audible sound

3.Ultrasound.
Infrasounds
❑ sound waves with frequencies below the lower limit of human audibility

❑sounds beneath 20 Hz down to 0.1Hz and rarely to 0.001 Hz.

❑This frequency range is utilized for monitoring earthquakes, charting rock and petroleum formations
below the earth, and also in ballistocardiography and seismocardiography to study the mechanics of
the heart.
Audible Sound
❑20 to 20,000 hertz,

❑capable of being detected by human organs of hearing

Ultrasound
❑frequencies higher than the upper audible (>20,000 Hz) limit of human hearing.

❑Diagnostic medical ultrasound: 2–20 MHz

❑ Ultrasound has the same physical property as audible sound, the only difference is we cannot hear it.
velocity of a sound wave is dependent on, and constant for, the
material through which the wave is passing. c = √ (ƙ / ρ)
where:

c = speed
ƙ = rigidity/stiffness
ρ = density

From the above equation, the speed of the sound wave increases with increasing rigidity and
decreasing density. It travels the slowest in air as the material is so compressible that a lot of
energy is lost between the particles. The important number to learn is that for soft tissues the
speed is around 1540 m/s. Ultrasound machines are calibrated to this speed to give the best
images of soft tissues.
Material Speed of sound (m/s)

Air 330

Water 1480

Tissue 1540

Bone 4080
The wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency and
proportional to the velocity of the sound wave. In ultrasound imaging,
however, the frequency is set by the transducer so it is mainly the
velocity that affects the wavelength.

Speed (c) = Wavelength (λ) • Frequency (f)

where:

c = velocity
f = frequency
λ = wavelength
 Intensity
❑ also known as acoustic intensity, is defined as the power carried by sound waves per unit
area in a direction perpendicular to that area

❑I=P (sound pressure) . V(particle velocity)

❑The intensity of a sound wave is measured in watts per metre2 (w/m2).

❑The decibel scale is used to represent the ratio of two intensities.

dB ratio = 10 log10 (I1 / I2)

where:

I1 = intensity one
I2 = intensity two
Acoustic attenuation
❑measure of the energy loss of sound propagation in media.
❑When travelling through a material, sound is attenuated exponentially for 2 reasons:
1. Energy is absorbed and converted to heat (caused by viscosity)
2. Energy leaves the forwards-travelling beam due to scatter and partial reflection:
❑the higher the frequency, the higher the attenuation
❑ Attenuation is measured in decibels (dB)
❑In soft tissue, sound loses 1 dB / cm for every 1 MHz In air: 40 dB / cm at 1 MHz Since there is
little absorption or scatter in water, a full bladder can aid penetration As a rule of thumb:
penetration (cm) = 40 / frequency (MHz)
Generation of Ultrasound
An ultrasound wave is usually generated and detected by a piezoelectric crystal that mounted on
transducer, popularly known as ultrasound probe. Piezoelectric crystals have an unique vice versa
phenomena. If you put it in any electric field it will deforms with the variation of the field. On the
other hand it produces electric field in response to mechanical stress. An ultrasound wave is generated
when an electric field is applied to an array of piezoelectric crystals located on the transducer surface.
Electrical stimulation causes mechanical distortion of the crystals resulting in vibration and production
of sound waves (i.e. mechanical energy). Each piezoelectric crystal produces an ultrasound wave. The
summation of all waves generated by the piezoelectric crystals forms the ultrasound beam. Ultrasound
waves are generated in pulses (intermittent trains of pressure waves) and each pulse commonly
consists of 2 or 3 sound cycles of the same frequency.
Natural / resonant frequency

If two sound waves of the same

wavelength cross in the same phase,
they combine and are reinforced
(constructive interference). If,
however, they are in different phases
they cancel each other out (destructive
interference).
Interaction with tissue
An ultrasound beam interacts with tissue and is attenuated via four mechanisms:
 1) Absorption
❖This is the main cause of attenuation.
❖ Energy is transferred to the material it is traveling through as heat.
❖The energy of the ultrasound wave decreases exponentially.
❖ Higher frequencies are absorbed more rapidly and, therefore, decrease in intensity and are
absorbed more quickly.
❖The amount of absorption depends on the frequency of the sound. A high frequency sound has many cycles in
a second, and the particles in the medium are therefore vibrating very rapidly. Just as when you rub your hands
together very rapidly, this produces more heat than if you rub your hands together slowly. Since the molecules
get their energy to vibrate from the sound wave, the sound wave will run out of energy sooner when it is a high
frequency sound. This means that, under the same conditions, a high frequency sound won’t travel as far as a
low frequency sound.
 2) Reflection

⮚This occurs at the interface/tissue boundaries.

⮚The amount of reflection depends on the difference between the acoustic impedance
(Z) of the tissues at an interface (acoustic impedance mismatch).

⮚ This is one reason gel is used in ultrasound, to reduce the acoustic impedance
mismatch between the transducer and the skin and to minimise the amount of trapped
air between the transducer and the skin. This minimises reflection of the sound wave. At
a soft tissue-air interface, over 99% of the echo is reflected.
▪ The acoustic impedance is a measure of how easily material allows sound
waves to pass through, the higher the impedance mismatch, the more of the
wave that is reflected:
Acoustic impedance (Z) (kg m-2 s-1) = density x speed of sound in that material

Reflection coefficient (R) = (Z2 - Z1)2 / (Z2 + Z1)2

Highest Z Bone
Liver
Blood
Water
Fat
Lowest Z Gas
Cont’d…
•Good transmitters: •Poor transmitters:
• Small light molecules as
•Large dense molecules
they don't need as much
energy to move them with weak bonds
• Material with stiff bonds
as energy travels quicker
through stiffer bonds
 3) Refraction

⮚When an ultrasound wave crosses an interface between two tissue some of the beam is
reflected, the rest passes into the material.

⮚As the beam passes into the second material, the velocity changes.

⮚This causes refraction, or bending, of the ultrasound wave.

⮚The angle of refraction depends on the velocity change of the wave after it has crossed
the interface.
4) Scatter

When a sound wave interacts with an object smaller than a wavelength and most of the
beam doesn't interact with it the sound wave is scattered. This is in contrast to when
objects are larger than the wavelength in which case they are reflected.

Scatter increases when:

•Decreased size of the object causing scatter

•Increased acoustic impedance mismatch

Σ Summary
Anatomy of a sound wave
•Frequency

• The range of sound audible by humans is 20-20,000 Hz

• Medical imaging uses ultrasound waves of 2-18 MHz
•Velocity

• Velocity = √ (rigidity / density)

• Velocity faster in bone than air
• 1540 m/s in most soft tissues
Σ Summary
•Wavelength

• Velocity = frequency x wavelength

• Wavelength inversely proportional to frequency and proportional to velocity.
Frequency set by transducer.
•Intensity

• Measured in watts/m2
• Also measured as the attenuation of sound in decibels (dB) which is the log
ratio between two intensities
Σ Summary
Interaction with matter

Occurs via three mechanisms:

•Absorption: main mechanism. More quickly absorbed in higher frequencies

•Reflection: more reflection when higher impedance mismatch. At a soft tissue-air

interface, over 99% of the wave is reflected
•Refraction: change in velocity when beam crosses an interface causing change in angle

•Scatter: when particle smaller than a wavelength beam scattered in all directions
Generation of Ultrasound
❖The pulse length (PL) is the distance traveled per pulse. Waves of short pulse lengths improve axial
resolution for ultrasound imaging. The PL cannot be reduced to less than 2 or 3 sound cycles by the
damping materials within the transducer.

❖ Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) is the rate of pulses emitted by the transducer (number of pulses
per unit time).

❖Ultrasound pulses must be spaced with enough time between pulses to permit the sound to reach the
target of interest and return to the transducer before the next pulse is generated.

❖The PRF for medical imaging ranges from 1-10 kHz.

Types of Ultrasound Probe
Probes are generally described by the size and shape of their face ("footprint").
Selecting the right probe for the situation is essential to get good images,
although there may be times where more than one probe may be appropriate for a
given exam. The essential element of each ultrasound transducer is a
piezoelectric crystal, serving both to generate and to receive ultrasound waves.
The ultrasound transducers differ in construction according to:
- piezoelectric crystal arrangement,
- aperture (footprint),
- operating frequency (which is directly related to the penetration depth)
The following types of transducers/probes are most often used in the critical
ultrasound imaging:

1. sector or phased array,

2. linear

3. convex (standard or micro-convex).

Sector or Phased Array Probe
A phased array probe generates an image from
an electronically steered beam in a close array,
generating an image that comes from a point
and is good for getting between ribs such as in
cardiac ultrasound.
Sector or Phased Array Probe Features:
 Piezoelectric crystal arrangement: phased-array (most commonly used)

 Footprint size: small and field of view will be spreaded widely at

 Operating frequency (bandwidth): 1-5 MHz (usually 3.5-5 MHz)

 Element radius: 32 ch – 128 ch

 Ultrasound beam shape: sector, almost triangular

Uses:

 Abdominal application.  Transesophageal application.  Brain diagnosis,  Echocardiography, 

Gynecological ultrasound, etc.
Linear or Vascular Probe

A linear (also sometimes called

vascular) probes are generally high
frequency, better for imaging
superficial structures and vessels
Linear or Vascular Probe Features:
 Piezoelectric crystal arrangement: linear
 Footprint size: usually big (small for the hockey transducers)
 Operating frequency (bandwidth): 3-12 mhz (usually 5-7.5 mhz)
 Ultrasound beam shape: rectangular
 Element radius: 64 ch – 256 ch
 Uses:

❑venipuncture, blood vessel visualization

❑Breast, Thyroid
❑Tendon, arthrogenous
❑Intraoperative, laparoscopy
❑The thickness measurement of Body fat and Muscles for daily healthcare check
and locomotive syndrome check
❑ultrasonic velocity change imaging.
❑Vascular application:  carotid doppler, FMD Flow-mediated dilation
measurement for early detection of arterial sclerosis
Convex or curvilinear Probe
A convex or curvilinear probes may have a
wider footprint and lower frequency for
transabdominal imaging, or in a tighter array
(wider field of view) and higher frequency for
endocavitary imaging.
Features:
 piezoelectric crystal arrangement:  Element radius: 64 ch – 192 ch Uses:
curvilinear
 Typical abdominal application.
 footprint size: big
 Pelvic and lung ultrasound
 operating frequency (bandwidth): 1-5 MHz
(usually 3.5-5 MHz)

 ultrasound beam shape: sector; the

ultrasound beam shape and size vary with
distance from the transducer
Ultrasound Probe Care
An ultrasound transducer is the most important and usually the most expensive element of the
ultrasound machine, so it should be used carefully, which means the following: • Do not throw, drop or
knock the transducer, • Do not allow to spoil the transducer`s duct, • Wipe the gel from the transducer
after each use, • Do not sluice with alcohol-based confections.
Pencil transducers
also called CW Doppler probes, are utilized to
measure blood flow and speed of sound in
blood. This probe has a small footprint and
uses low frequency (typically 2Mhz– 8Mhz).
Transesophageal (TEE) transducers
It has a small footprint and is used
for internal examinations. It is often
employed in cardiology to obtain a
better image of the heart through the
oesophagus. The frequency is
middle, in the range of 3Mhz –
10Mhz.
4D transducer
3D imaging allows fetal structures and internal
anatomy to be visualized as static 3D images.
However, 4D ultrasound allows us to add live
streaming video of the images, showing the
motion of the fetal heart wall or valves, or
blood flow in various vessels. It is thus 3D
ultrasound in live motion. It uses either a 2D
transducer which rapidly acquires 20-30
volumes or a matrix array 3D transducer is
used.