AMBO UNIVERSITY

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF FEPT
Beverage Processing Technology

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Nov, 2022
 Chapter 1

Introduction to Beverages
Outline

 General over view about beverages

 Non-alcoholic and Alcoholic beverages

 The science of brewing and raw materials

1.1Introduction
Beverages- Definitions
Beverages are potable drinks, which have thirst
quenching, refreshing, stimulating and nourishing
qualities.
Refreshing means the replenishment of fluid loss from the
body due to perspiration.
Stimulation results in increase of the heartbeat and blood
pressure. This is due to the intake of spirits.
 Nourishment is provided by the nutrients in the
beverages.
 Types of Beverages
• Beverages are both alcoholic and nonalcoholic
drinkable liquids.
1.2 Non alcoholic Beverages
• Non alcoholic beverages are potables drinks
which either has no ethyl alcohol or the alcohol
percentage is less that 0.5% by volume.
• Non alcoholic beverage are potable drinks which
may be nourishing, stimulating, refreshing may
have thirst quenching properties.
• They also help in maintaining of body PH
balance.
Classification of Non alcoholic Beverages
• Stimulating beverage: these are consumed to
stimulate our mental and physical activities.
eg:- Tea and coffee
• Refreshing beverages: These are drinks which are
taken to make up for the fluid loss( due to
perspiration) of our body.
eg:- water, soft drinks, tonic water etc.
• Nourishing beverages: are beverages consumed to
provide nutrients to the body.
eg:- Milk based products like milk shake,
chocolate drinks, juices etc.
1.3 Alcoholic Beverages

Alcoholic Beverages are beverages which contain

ethanol and are usually classified as either fermented
or distilled spirits.
Any beverage containing 0.55% of alcohol by volume
to 76% alcohol by volume is considered to be an
alcoholic beverage.
Those with higher than 76% alcohol are known as
medicines, such as an aesthetics.
 Cont…
Alcohol ,also known by its chemical name ethanol, is a
psychoactive substance that is the active ingredient in
drinks such as beer, wine, and distilled spirits.
Yet ethyl is the one which concerns us the most as it is the
principal alcohol to be found in all alcoholic beverages.
The two main categories of alcoholic beverages:
fermented and distilled spirits.
Fermentation is the process in which sugar is converted to
alcohol and carbon dioxide by the action of yeast.
 Cont…
• Fermentation is the basis for producing all types of
alcoholic beverages.
• Fermentation is the action of yeast and grain in a solution
to form beer, or the action of yeast and grapes to form
wine.
The amount of alcohol left behind depends on the amount
of sugar in the grains.
Grains with greater sugar content produce a liquid with a
higher percentage of alcohol.
 Cont…
In a standard beer, alcohol content ranges from 4 to 6%,
though some specialty imports range as high as 12 or
14%.
Wines normally range from 10 to 21%.
Distillation is a process of simultaneous evaporation and
condensation of liquid or mixture of liquids to purify
them.
Distilled spirits are fermented first, then the alcohol is
further processed, or distilled, from the fermented liquid.
 Cont…
In the distillation process, the liquid is heated in a still to
at least 175ᵒ F.
At this temperature, the alcohol changes from a liquid to a
gas and rises.
Most of the water solution is left behind because water
does not evaporate until it reaches 212ᵒ F.
The high alcohol content gas is channeled off and cooled
so that it condenses into a liquid again. The result is what
is called a distilled spirit.
Cont…
 Production, consumption and Importance of
Alcoholic Beverage
Most of the beverage supply energy is in the form of
sugar or alcohol.
Alcoholic beverages affect the central nervous system and
tranquilize it, thus reducing tension and worries.
Initially alcohol acts as a stimulant, being a concentrated
source of energy. Later on, however, it acts as a
depressant.
At higher dosages, alcohol acts as a central nervous
system depressant, impaired sensory and motor function,
slowed cognition and unconsciousness.
 Cont…
Alcohol being a concentrated source of energy, it is absorbed
directly by the bloodstream from the stomach.

Thus it provides instant energy to the body and increases the

blood pressure for a short while.

Effects of alcohol remain in the body for about 24 hours.

Beer is the world most widely consumed alcoholic beverage; it

is the third most popular drink overall, after water and tea.
 Importance of Alcoholic Beverages
Moderate alcohol consumption means up to one drink
a day for women of all ages and men older than age 65,
and up to two drinks a day for men age 65 and younger.
Moderate alcohol consumption may provide some
health benefits such as:
- Reducing risk of heart disease
- Possibly reducing risk of stroke
- Possibly reducing risk of diabete
How?
Moderate alcohol consumption reduces risk of heart
failure both by inhibiting the formation of atheroma
and by decreasing the rate of blood coagulation.
Atheroma is a fatty deposit in the inner lining of an
artery.
Risks of heavy alcohol use
Heavy alcohol consumption can increase risk of
serious health problems including
-Liver disease
-High blood pressure
-Certain cancers, including cancers of mouth,
throat, esophagus and liver.
-Suicide
-Brain damage and other problems in an unborn
child.
 Cont…
Drinking too much alcohol can raise the levels of
some fats in the blood(tryglycerides).
It can also lead to high blood pressure.
Increased calorie intake(consuming too much calories
can lead to obesity and a higher risk of developing
diabetes).
Each time liver filters alcohol, some of the liver cells
die.
 Cont…
The liver can develop new cells, but prolonged alcohol
usage can reduce its ability to regenerated.
This can result in serious and permanent damage to
liver.
So it can be concluded that a moderate alcohol intake
may impart some health benefits whereas excessive
alcohol consumption will result in serious health
issues.
 1.4 The science of brewing and raw materials

Beer is the worlds most widely consumed alcoholic

beverage. It is the third most widely drink after water and
tea.
Beer is defined as a potable alcoholic beverage which is
fermented from malted barley, water, hops, and yeast.

Beer is produced by the saccharification of starch and

fermentation of the resulting sugar.

The starch and saccharification enzymes are often derived

from malted cereal grains; most commonly malted barley.

 Cont…
The basic ingredients of beer are water, malted
barley, a brewer's yeast to produce the fermentation
and a flavoring such as hops to offset the sweetness of
the malt.
A mixture of starch sources may be used with a
secondary saccharide such as maize, rice, sugar often
being termed an adjunct, especially when used as a
lower cost substitute for malted barley.
The preparation of beer is called brewing.
1.4.1 Barley

• Barley (Hordeum vulgare) supplies the starch

required for beer production.
• This starch is converted to fermentable extract
in the brewhouse.
• It is necessary to produce, by cultivation of
suitable varieties, barleys which provide
extract-rich malts.
1.4.1.1 Barley types and varieties

• Barley is a cereal, the ears of which, are

characterized by particularly long awns.
• It is classified into two types and many
varieties which are not equally useful as far as
brewing and malting are concerned.
Types of Barley
• Both types are subdivided into varieties which,
depending on the arrangement of the corns on the ear
axis, are classified as two- row or multirow.
Cont…
• In the case of multirow barleys, there are three
fertilizable florets at each node on the rachis.
• Each of these, after pollination, develops into a
barley corn or grain.
• Two-row barleys produce large, plump grains
usually with thinner, finely wrinkled husks.
• Consequently such barleys have relatively
larger amounts of useful contents and less
husk.
Cont…
• Therefore, contain less polyphenolic and bitter substances.
The grains are very uniform and their extract content is
comparatively high.
• Two-row barleys are preferably grown as spring barleys
and combine all the desirable features for malt and beer
production.
• Six-row barleys produce grains of uneven size. Because the
grains do not have sufficient room to grow fully, those in
the rows from the lateral florets are thinner and these grains
are curved at the distal end where the awn is
attached(twisted grains).
• These twisted grains can be used to recognize six-row
barleys.
Barley Varieties
• Within the above-mentioned types, there are many
varieties which differ considerably from one another
in a number of properties.
• In the European Brewery Convention (EBC)
countries alone, about 300 spring barleys, 100 two-
row winter barleys and 100 six-row barleys are
registered.
• For malting and brewing purposes, the two-row
spring barleys are by far the most suitable, because
systematic attempts have been made to improve their
brewing quality for many years.
• A larger number of varieties have excellent
technological properties.
Barley Quality Evaluation
• The quality of the barleys offered for purchase
or delivered has a decisive effect on the quality
of the malt and the beer produced from it.
• Barley evaluation is therefore very important
for brewing.
• Barley is evaluated
 by assessment by hand
 By physical and chemical examinations.
Cont…
• Assessment is made at the time the barley is
offered for sale and by sampling at certain
positions in the load being delivered).
Hand Evaluation
• Barleys for malting are selected mainly on the
basis of the varieties and the growth site.
• In addition to the rapid methods commonly
used today when barley is delivered, hand
assessment, i.e evaluation of the barley from
its external appearance, is important.
Cont…
• Features examined are:
 Color
 Dampness
 Colour and brightness
 Red corn
 Husk properties
 Cracking of the husk
 Cracking of the grain
 Amount of impurities and damaged corn
 Corn shape, size and uniformity
 Presence of pests.
Physical and chemical evaluations
Grading
• Grading by size is the most important physical
examination of barley and can be performed
quickly and easily.
• The barley is sorted by 2.8 mm, 2.5 mm and
2.2 mm vibrating sieves.
Thousand corn weight
• Since thousand corn weight increases with
increasing water content, it is calculated on a
dry weight basis.
Cont…
• The thousand corn mass is determined with a counting
device and a balance. Broken and foreign corns are
removed previously and their weight is subtracted.
• The calculation is done by using the equations
1000 corn mass, air dry(g)=
Corrected corn mass * 1000
number of whole corns
1000 corn mass, dry weight (g)=
1000 corn mass(air dry) * (100-W)
100
W= % water content in the barley
Cont…
• Example:
A 40 g sample contains 1.6g broken and foreign corns
and 1048 barley corns. The water content of the barley
is 11.5%.
1048 corns weigh 40-1.6g=38.4g
1000 corn mass, air dry= 38.4*1000=36.6g
1048
1000 corn mass, dry weight= 36.6* (100- 11.5)
100
= 32.4g
The thousand corn mass of the barley is 32.4 g.
Cont…
Hardness
• The hardness of the endosperm is examined by
cutting sample corns with a farinator, or
longitudinal cutter.
• A good barley for brewing should contain not
less than 80% floury (mealy) corns. The
glassiness of the other corns may be temporary
or permanent. To distinguish between these, the
corns must be steeped for 24 hours, dried and
cut again. Permanent glassiness produces malt
with unfavorable processing features.
Cont…
Chemical property examination
• The water content and protein content of every
batch of barley is measured. Other examinations
are made as required.
• Water content is determined using the standard
drying procedure in which ground barley is dried
at an exactly defined temperature and time.
• The protein content is determined in the
laboratory using kjeldahl method or a rapid
method.
Cont…
Physiological examinations
Germination capacity
• The germinative capacity is the percentage of all living
corns in the sample. At least 96% of the corns should
be able to germinate.
Water uptake capacity
• The more enzymatically active a barley is, the greater
its water uptake capacity and the higher the value of
the barley for brewing malt.
• The test should show whether the barley is able to
achieve as high water uptake as possible within a
minimum steeping time.
1.4.2 Hops
• Hops contain bitter resins and oils which supply
bittering and aroma components to the beer.
Hop harvesting
• Hop picking occurs at the time of ripeness at the
end of August and should be completed within
14 days.
Hop drying
• The picked hop contains 75 to 80% water. In
this form it can’t be stored, therefore the hops
must be dried immediately.
Cont…
• Hop drying is performed on belt dryers, or in
small firms, in batches in kilns.
• The hops are carefully dried at a maximum
temperature of 50ᵒC to a water content of 8 to
12 %.
• The hops are then compresses into pockets or
larger units. Even in this form, the hops cannot
be stored for a long time without a reduction
in quality.
Cont…

• As a result of
 the action of oxygen
 the effect of moisture and heating
The bittering value soon decreases and other
adverse effects occur. The hops must therefore
be made stable.
Cont…
Stabilizing the hops
• Hops have to be protected from further spoilage.
• To do this, the dried hops are pressed by means
of hydraulic presses into ballots of about 1.1 m
in length and 0.6 m in diameter, then covered by
a sack.
• The resulting ballot weighs about 65 kg. As a
result of the compression, the amount of air
accessing the hops is reduced and thus the
moisture absorption is made more difficult.
1.4.3 Water
• Quantitative water is the major row material
used in beer production. Only a part of the
water required is used directly in the beer
while the rest is used for cleaning, rinsing and
other purposes.
• Supply of water is very important to the
brewer because the water quality affects the
quality of the beer produced.
 1.4.4 Yeast
• Yeast is a unicellular microorganism which
can obtain the energy it needs
 in the presence of oxygen (aerobic) by
respiration and
 in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic) by
fermentation.
• During beer production, the sugar in the wort
is fermented by yeast to alcohol and CO 2.
• For this purpose species saccharomyces
cerevisiae are used.
Characteristics of brewing yeast
• In brewing practice, yeast is divided into two major
groups.
1. Top fermenting yeast and
2. Bottom fermenting yeast.
• The names top fermenting and bottom fermenting
for brewing yeast strains are derived from their
characteristic appearance during fermentation.
• Top fermenting yeasts rise to the surface during
fermentation: bottom fermenting yeasts settle to the
bottom towards the end of fermentation.
1.4.5 Adjuncts
• The enzyme potential of malt is sufficient to
catabolize additional starch.
• Consequently, through out the world, part of
malt (ususaly 15 to 20%) is replaced by
unmalted cereal.
• This unmalted cereal, which is cheaper than
the relatively expensive malt, is referred to as
adjunct.
• Cereals such as maize, rice, wheat, barley and
sorghum are commonly used as adjuncts.
 Cont…
Sugar
• A part of the grist load can be replaced by sugar
with cane sugar or beet sugar( saccharose).
Saccharose is a disaccharide of glucose and
fructose.
• If boiled for a longer time, the saccarose is
inverted into the two monosaccharides and as a
result it becomes easily fermentable.
• The sugar is added to the casting wort as it is
completely fermentable and requires no
pretreatment.
Cont…
Glucose syrup
• Glucose syrup is manufactured from undried
refined maize grits in which the starch has
been broken down to sugar by hydrolysis (i.e
splitting with water).
• Three processes can be used for this:
 Acid hydrolysis
 a combination of acid and enzymatic
hydrolysis.
Cont…
Coloring Sugar
• Coloring sugar is used for a dark brown food
coloring which is produced by heating sugar.
• After boiling, a catalyst is carefully added to
the solution and is heated to 160ᵒc.
• When the desired depth of color is achieved,
the process is stopped, the color is cooled and
is added after being adequately diluted.
 Chapter 2: Malt Production
• Beer cannot be made without malt. Consequently,
malt production is the first step in beer
production.
• Barley malt has proved to be the most suitable
malt for beer production.
• To produce 1 hl of beer with an original extract of
11%, approximately 17 kg of malt is required.
• For economic and various other reasons, when
brewing beer, part of the malt is replaced with
other unmalted cereals.
Cont…
• The purpose of malting is to produce enzymes
in the germinating barley kernel and to cause
certain changes in its chemical constituents.
• For this purpose, the barley is made to
germinate through the absorption of water and
this germination process is interrupted at the
appropriate time by a drying procedure, known
as kilning.
Cont…
• Before these operations are performed, the
barley delivered to the malting is first cleaned,
graded and stored in large silos until it is
processed.
• During steeping, the barley absorbs the water
necessary for germination and it is then
germinated in large tank.
• Finally, the germination is terminated by
kilning at high temperature.
Cont…
Barley Steeping
• In stored barley, the enzymes important for the
malting process are inactive.
• During steeping, water is supplied to the
interior of the kernel.
• As a result, the enzymes become active and
the life process known as germination begins.
• To initiate germination as fast as possible the
barley must be adequately supplied both water
and oxygen during steeping.
Cont…

• Water passes first into the embryo region but

later also through the sides of the husk into the
grain. Water uptake depends on the steeping
time, steeping temperature, kernel size, barley
variety and barley harvest year.
• Steeping time: water uptake occurs rapidly at
first and gradually slows down with time.
Cont…
• Steeping temperature: the warmer the steep
water, the faster the water is taken up.
• Kernel size: small kernels take up water much
more quickly than large ones.
• Barley variety and year: the barley variety and
harvest year also have an important effect on
water uptake by barley kernels. Barley from
dry inland regions swell and germinate more
quickly than barleys from wet inland regions.
Cont…

• During steeping, the barley must take up

water, be supplied with oxygen and be
cleaned.
• At the same time the oxygen required for
respiration must be supplied and the co 2
which is produced as well as the respiratory
heat has to be eliminated.
Provision of oxygen
• With the uptake of a large amount of water, the
respiration rate increases greatly. Consequently, the
oxygen requirement of the barley immediately
increases.
• If the barley is not aerated, an intermolecular
respiration begins (i.e. other compounds replace
oxygen), which in extreme cases leads to death of the
seedling(dead steep).
• An abundant supply of oxygen to the barley which is
being steeped is a basic requirement for a rapid
commencement and trouble free continuation of
germination.
Barley Germination
• During germination, a new barley plant is
produced from the kernel.
• To form the new plant, the barley needs a large
amount of energy and building materials
which must be produced by respiration and
other metabolic processes.
• Before the young plant is in position to react
with the environment and make starch itself by
assimilation, it must draw on the reserve
materials present in the endosperm.
Cont…
• At the start of the malting process, the endosperm
contents are in a stable form.
• These substances must be degraded to products
consisting of smaller molecules before they can be
transported with the help of water.
• This degradation is performed by enzymes which
are formed during germination.
• The production of enzymes is the main purpose of
malting. These enzymes are absolutely essential
for the breaking down of large molecules during
mashing.
 Processes occurring during germination
• The processes can be divided into
 Growth processes
 Enzyme formation and
 Metabolic changes.
Growth processes
• The germinating kernel develops rootlets and an
acrospire.
• Towards the end of the steeping, the rootlets
break through the base of the corn and become
visible.
Cont…
• The acrospire breaks through the testa (seed
case) but not the husk and grows under the
husk on the dorsal side of the kernel towards
the tip of the kernel.
• It can be detected as a swelling under the husk
and is an important feature for diffentiating
from barley.
Cont…
Cont…
Enzyme formation
• A few hours after the uptake of water, the
seedling excretes growth promoting
substances which promote the new formation
of enzymes such as amylase or dextrinase,
while the ᵦ amylase, already present in large
amounts in the endosperm, is released.
Cont…
• Of the many enzymes and enzyme complexes which are
contained in barley, the following are of particular
interest:
 Starch degrading enzymes: α amylase, β amylase and
residual dextrinase.
 Cytolytic enzymes: endo β glucanase, exo β glucanase,
β glucan solubilase, endo- xylanase.
 Protein degrading or proteolytic enzymes: proteinases,
peptinases.
 Fat degrading enzymes: lipases, in particular the
lipoxygenases, and
 Phosphoric acid splitting enzymes: phosphatases.
Malt kilning
• The germinating process is interrupted by
drying the malt and kilning to prevent further
transformation and losses. To do this:
 The water content is lowered from over 40%
to less than 5% to make the malt more storable
and to increase its preservability.
 With the lowering of the water content, all life
processes in malt such as germination and
modification as well as further enzymatic
activity are stopped.
Treatment of malt after kilning
• After kilning, the malt is cooled and the still
attached rootlets are removed as soon as
possible. Cooling is performed by:
 Blowing cold fresh air through until the
temperature is no more than 35 to 40ᵒc, or
 By cooling in a special cooling hopper.
• The malt is then stored until delivery and
often cleaned again before dispatch to improve
its appearance.
Yield during Malting
• Malting of 100kg of barley does not give
100kg of malt, but less.
• The percentage ration of the amount of malt
produced to the amount of barley used is
called the malting yield.
• The difference from 100% is called the
malting loss. The yield should be as high as
possible and the loss as little as possible.
Malt from other cereals
• Most beers worldwide are pale beers.
Consequently the demand for pale malt is very
high and therefore most malting produce
almost exclusively pale malt in large batches.
• On the other hand, more and more beer types
are being produced worldwide which differ
considerably from one another in taste, color,
aroma, mouth feel, foam and other quality
features.
Cont…
• However, this means that to produce them,
different malts have to be used which
contribute to the particularities of these
properties.
• These malts are considered as “special malts”.
They are almost exclusively produced in
special maltings.
Malt Quality Evaluation
• Malt is evaluated by using the official brewing
technical analysis methods of the middle
European brewing Analysis Commission.
• Malt can be examined by
 Hand evaluation
 Physical and physiological examinations and
chemical-technological methods.
 Chapter 3. Brew house operation
3.1 Introduction
• The most important process in beer production
is the fermentation of the sugars contained in
the wort to form alcohol and carbon dioxide.
• To provide the necessary conditions for this, the
initially insoluble components in the malt be
converted into soluble products, and soluble
fermentable sugars must be produced.
• The formation and dissolving of these
compounds is the purpose of wort production.
Cont…
• The wort is produced in the brew house. Malt
is transferred from a malt storage hopper into
the grist mill in which it is ground to a suitable
size.
• In the brewhouse, the malt grist is mixed with
water(mashed) and converted in two mash
vessels i.e the mash conversion vessel ( mash
tun) and the mash cooker (mash kettle), to give
as much soluble extract as possible.
3.2 Malt Milling
• In order to give the malt enzymes the
opportunity, during mashing, to act on the malt
contents and break them down, the malt must be
broken into small fragments.
• This process is called milling. The malt used for
a brew is called the grist and the amount used is
called the charge.
• Milling is a mechanical process and during
milling the husk must be treated carefully
because it is used as a filter material during
lautering.
Cont…
• Before the malt is milled, the amount used is
weighed in a weighing machine.
• The malt is fragmented ina grist mill.
Depending on the process used milling type is
choosen between
 Dry milling
 Wet milling and
 Hammer milling.
Cont…
Dry Milling
• The most commonly used mills in breweries
are dry grist mills. The malt is crushed in a dry
state between rollers arranged in pairs.
Depending on the rollers, these are classified
as
 two roller mills
 Four roller mills
 Five roller mills and six roller mills
 Cont…
Conditioned dry Milling
• When the husks are dry, they are brittle and
easily split on milling. The husks, however are
required as a flter layer during lautering.
• To protect the husk, the malt is often
moistened before dry milling. This process is
known as conditioning.
• In the case of conditioned dry milling, the malt
is moistened using steam or water at 30 to 35ᵒc
for one to two minutes before milling.
Cont…
Hammer Mills
• In modern type mash filters, lautering is
performed by means of small pore
polypropylene filter cloths with a spent grain
layer thickness of only 4 cm.
• In such cases, the husk is not needed as filter
material and the malt can be ground finely.
This is done using a hammer mill.
Cont…
Wet Milling
• When malt is milled dry, the husks are damaged
so can only perform their function as filter
material to a limited extent.
• Therefore during wet milling, the malt is steeped
before milling, the husks absorb moisture and
become more elastic.
• The malt contents can then be easily squeezed
out of the husk which remain almost undamaged
and are therefore better for mash separation.
3.3 Mashing Technology
• Mashing is the most important process in wort production.
• During mashing, the grist and water are mixed together
( mashed) and the contents of the malt are thereby brought
into solution and with the help of enzymes, the extract is
obtained.
• All of the substances which go into solution are referred to
as extract.
• Soluble substances are sugars, dextrins, inorganic
substances and certain proteins.
• Insoluble substances include starch, cellulose, high
molecular weight protein and other compounds which
remain as spent grains at the end of the lautering process.
Cont…
• On economic grounds, one attempts to convert as
much insoluble material as possible into soluble
compounds to get as much extract as possible.
• This is shown by the brew house yield and the
spent grain extract.
• However, not only the amount but also the quality
of the extract is important, because as little as
possible of certain compounds (e.g. the tannins in
the husk) is wanted, whereas others (e.g certain
sugars or protein degradation products) are
particularly desirable.
Cont…
• The purpose of mashing is to completely
degrade the starch to sugar and soluble
dextrins.
• As a result of this, other extract substances are
also produced.
• Most of the extract is produced during
mashing by the action of enzymes which are
then allowed to act at their optimum
temperatures.
Cont…
• Mashing involves increasing the temperature of the
mash to the optimum temperature for the enzymes
which one wants to activate, and maintaining a rest
(i.e. holding for a period of time) at that
temperature.
• The rest occurs at the temperature optimum for
specific the enzymes:
• 45 to 50ᵒc protein and β- glucanase rest
• 62 to 65ᵒc maltose production rest
• 70 to 75ᵒc saccarification rest
• 75 to 78ᵒc final mash temperature.
Cont…
• Depending on the way in which the temperature is raised,
mashing processes are classified into two types:
infusion processes and
decoction processes.
• In infusion processes, the entire mash is heated up, with
appropriate rest, to the final mashing temperature and no
part of the mash is removed to be boiled separately.
• In decoction processes, the temperature is increased by
removing part of the mash (cooker mash) and boiling it.
By pumping it back to the remainder of the mash, the
temperature of the total mash is increased to the next
higher rest temperature. This process is repeated several
times.
Cont…
• Only one vessel is required for infusion
mashing but it must be possible to heat it. As
no mash is transferred by pump, there is little
uptake of air.
• This is advantageous since oxygen present
during mashing causes oxidation of the
unsaturated fatty acids with their negative
effects on the stability of the beer flavor.
3.3.1 Lautering
• At the end of the mashing process, the mash consists
of a watery mixture of dissolved and un dissolved
substances. The aqueous solution of the extract is
called wort, the insoluble part is referred to as the
spent grains.
• The spent grains consist essentially of the husk, the
seedling and other materials which do not go into
solution on mashing.
• Only the wort is used for the beer production and for
this purpose it must be separated as completely as
possible from the spent grains. This separation
process is known as lautering.
Cont…
• During lautering as much as possible of the
extract should be recovered.
• Lautering is a filtration process in which the
spent grains play the role of the filter material.
• It occurs in two stages.
 Running off the first wort(main mash)
 Sparging(washing out) of the spent
grains(second wort).
3.4 Wort Boiling
• The wort obtained is boiled for 50 to 60
minutes. During this time, the hops are added.
• During wort boiling, bitter and aromatic hop
components are transferred into the wort and
simultaneously proteins are precipitated.
• Wort boiling is performed in the wort kettle
which is equipped with everything needed for
boiling.
• The end product of wort boiling is the cast
wort.
Cont…
• During wort boiling, a number of important processes
occur:
 extraction and transformation of hop components,
 Formation and precipitation of protein-poly-phenol
compounds,
 Evaporation of water
 Wort sterilization
 Destruction of enzymes
 Thermal stress on the wort
 Lowering of the pH of the wort
 Formation of reducing substances and
 Evaporation of undesirable aroma substances.
3.4.1 Extraction and transformation of hop
components
• The important components of hops for beer production are:
 Hop resins or hop bitter substances,
 Hop oil,
 Hop polyphenols.
• The hop resins or bitter substances are the most important
component of hops for beer production because they give the
beer its bitter taste.
• The α- acids are completely insoluble in cold wort.
• In boiling wort, changes in the structures of the α- acid accur
which is referred to as isomerization.
• The iso-compounds produced are much more soluble than the
α-acids from which they are formed.
Cont…
• Hop oil is volatile during wort boiling. As a
result, in most breweries, the hops with the
best aromas are added only 15 to 20 min
before casting, to retain at least part of the best
hop oil.
• Hop polyphenols are water soluble and
dissolve immediately. The hop polyphenols
include the anthocyanogens, tannins and
catechins.
3.5 Energy recovery systems
• Steam is produced on boiling. This steam is referred
to as water vapour. The evaporated water mass
contains a great deal of energy.
• To convert 1 kg of water at 100ᵒc into 1 kg of steam
at 100ᵒc, about 500kcal is required. If the steam
condenses again in the surroundings, this heat
energy is released again and is completely lost to the
brewery.
• It is therefore useful to recover at least part of the
heat of evaporation. This is done by building in a
kettle vapour condenser. If the vapour is condensed
here, the heat of evaporation is recovered.
3.5.1 Vapor condensation
• In the kettle vapour condenser, the vapour is
passed against pipes or pockets, through which
water is pumped, and the water is thereby
warmed whilst the vapour gives up its heat of
evaporation and condenses.
• Depending upon the subsequent purposes for
which the heat is used, the vapour is cooled in
one or two stages and hot water thereby
produced.
• Nowadays most kettle vapour condenses are
built with one stage cooling.
3.5.2 Vapour compression
• Vapour compression is achieved
either
By means of a mechanical
compressor (mechanical vapour
compression) or
By means of a steam jet compressor
which requires steam from a boiler
to drive it ( thermo-compression).
3.6 Wort clarification
• At the end of the boil, solid particles in the hopped wort are separated out,
usually in a vessel called a whirlpool or settling tank.
 Wort contains insoluble materials -
 Malt debris from wort separation
 Hop materials (vegetable matter and resins)
 Precipitated protein, tannin, carbohydrate complex (trub)
 Insoluble salts e.g., calcium phosphate
 The denser solids which are known as trub (coagulated proteins, vegetable

matter from hops) settles into a cone in the center of the whirlpool tank.
3.7 Wort Cooling
 Cooling the hot wort is necessary before the yeast is added (pitched).

 For top fermentation (ales), pitching temperature should be >15◦C,

whereas for bottom fermentation (lager) a temperature of around 8 - 10◦C
is normally desirable.
 During cooling of wort, further precipitation occurs; this is known as cold
trub or cold break.
 Purpose of wort cooling –
o To cool clarified wort to the desired temperature prior to
fermentation.
o To make aeration necessary to effect the start of fermentation (Yeast
requires oxygen for synthesis).
Cont…
After the whirlpool, the wort must be brought down to

fermentation temperatures before yeast is added.

In modern breweries this is achieved through a plate heat

exchanger.
The wort is pumped into the heat exchanger, and goes through

every other gap between the plates. The cooling medium,

usually water, goes through the other gaps.
After cooling, oxygen is often dissolved into the wort to

revitalize the yeast and aid its reproduction.

3.8 Cold wort clarification
• Below about 60ᵒc, the previously clear wort starts
to become turbid.
• This turbidity is due to small particles called cold
trub.
• Because of its small size, cold trub settles only
with great difficulty. It has a property of adhering
to other particles, e.g. yeast cells or air bubbles.
• When it adheres to yeast cells, it decreases the
yeast contact surface and thereby reduces the
fermentation rate. This is referred to as coating the
yeast.
Cont…
• Cold break consists of protein-polyphenol
compounds which precipitate to a greater extent in
a relatively cold media and partially dissolve again
on warming.
• This means that wort on cooling to 5ᵒc still contains
14% of the total cold break in dissolved form.
• Various methods are used to overcome the problem
of removing precipitated cold break.
• But the cold break should not be removed
completely, otherwise an empty taste in the beer
results.
Cont…
• A residual amount of cold break at discharge
of 120 to 160mg/l dry matter is desirable.
• A reduction of the cold break content to
approximately this value can result in
 A more rounded beer flavour, particularly in
bitterness.
 An improvement of the beer foam(as a result
of the precipitation of fatty acids).
 An improvement of the flavour stability and
 A more intensive fermentation.
Cont…
• To remove the cold break, the following
methods can be used.
 Filtration
 Flotation
 Sedimentation or separation.
3.9 Cold wort oxygenation
• Wort aeration at high temperatures results in extensive
oxidation. As a result the wort becomes darker and more
bitter.
• The presence of oxygen is absolutely essential for yeast
growth.
• Under anaerobic conditions, yeast is inhibited and
fermentation proceeds slowly.
• This defect can be prevented by optimal aeration of the
cold wort.
• The yeast requires oxygen preferably for the synthesis of
fatty acids, which are the main components of the cell
membrane and without which new cell can not be formed.
 Quiz
1. What is lautering?
2. What is the difference between infusion and
decoction methods?
 Chapter 4. Fermentation and Maturation Technology of Beer

4.1 Basic principles of fermentation technology

 The objective of brewery fermentation is to utilize the ability of yeast cells to

convert sugar into ethanol and CO2.

 Fermentation takes place in fermentation vessels which come in various

forms.
 It can be enormous cylindroconical vessel, through open stone vessel, to

wooden vat.
 After the wort is cooled and aerated, usually with sterile air, yeast is added to

it, and it begins to ferment.

• The chosen yeast must also control the elimination of undesirable flavour
components arising from the raw materials or from fermentation. Much of
this flavour improvement occurs in maturation.
Fermentation of the Wort
• The main objective is to ferment wort to the
desired gravity; this is often called the required
degree of attenuation.
• The proportion of the wort dissolved solids
(extract) which can be fermented is called the
percentage fermentability of the wort:
Fermentability.%= Original gravity- Final gravity * 100
Original gravity
Cont…
• By determining the specific gravity of the wort at time
intervals one can follow the course
of fermentation.
• The decline in the specific gravity is matched by the
growth of the yeast as sugars are metabolized and
ethanol produced.
• The pH value of the wort falls as ammonium ions and
amino acids are taken from the wort by the yeast and
organic acids are secreted.
• Major flavour compounds, the esters and higher alcohols
are released into the wort as the yeast grows and so
increase in concentration as fermentation proceeds.
Cont…
• The concentration of these flavour compounds
is critical for the consistency of the beer brand
and the flavour profile of the beer.
• Brewers need to be aware of the decline in
concentration of flavour compounds, which
can occur towards the end of fermentation, and
in maturation .
• This can occur as volatiles are carried out with
evolving carbon dioxide (`gas purging') or are
re-absorbed by the yeast.
4.2 Bottom Fermentation Systems

• Most beer in the world is brewed with strains

of the lager yeast Saccharomyces
carlsbergensis, which tends to separate to the
bottom of a fermenting vessel after
fermentation.
• Fermenters for lager fermentation are thus the
most common and important in brewing and
must allow for this property of the yeast.
 4.3 Top fermentation systems

• Lager beers produced by bottom fermenting yeasts are

by far the most widespread beer types throughout the
world; consequently the bulk of development work on
fermentation technology has been on cylindroconical
vessels for bottom fermenting yeasts.
• However in the UK and Ireland, ale and stout are the
traditional beers and these are normally produced with
strains of the top fermenting yeast Saccharomyces
cerevisiae as are some Belgian and German beers.
• Fermentation systems are developed to allow for the
property of separating the yeast from the top of the
fermenter at the end of fermentation.
Cont…
• Ale is almost entirely produced by top
fermentation.
• Ale can also be sold in kegs as a chilled and
filtered product.
4.4 Continuous fermentation Systems
• Continuous fermentation of beer was attempted
before 1900 and by 1906 at least five separate
systems had been described.
Cont…
• These early systems of continuous fermentation did
not achieve commercial success for reasons that are
not entirely clear.
• It seems probable that the inability to avoid infection
by micro-organisms was one reason and perhaps
another was the resistance to change by the
established brewers of the day.
• The decline of continuous fermentation reflected the
rise in the use of the large batch cylindroconical
fermenting vessel as brewers responded to the
`threat' of continuous fermentation by finding
improved batch methods.
Cont…
• There are a number of different ways of
classifying continuous yeast culture and hence
fermentation systems.
• Yeast can emerge in an `open' system with the
beer or in a `closed' system when it is retained
with the beer.
• In a homogeneous system, the yeast and
fermenting beer is intimately mixed in a stirred
fermenter, whereas in heterogeneous systems
there will be separation and concentration of the
yeast away from the beer in a vessel.
 4.5 Fermentation control systems

• The control of temperature in fermentation has

received much attention.
• These control systems are reactive to the
exothermic nature of fermentation and are now
highly developed.
• However, until recently little attention has been paid
to the control of brewery fermentation in relation to
the chemical changes which are taking place.
• These changes include the fall in specific gravity
and in pH value of the wort and the production of
ethanol and carbon dioxide.
 4.5.1 Specific gravity changes
• The most widely investigated methods of
fermentation control have been based on the
fall in specific gravity as wort is fermented to
yield beer.
• This method involves taking a representative
sample of wort and measuring its attenuation
limit using, e.g., EBC Analytical IV method.
• This can be done throughout fermentation to
construct a time-course picture of attenuation
during the fermentation process.
Cont…
• In large cylindroconical fermenters pressure
difference measurements have been used to
monitor the density change.
• As sugars are fermented to ethanol and to
carbon dioxide so the density drops and the
pressure in the fermenter will change in
proportion.
• Pressure transducers are used to measure this
change and by linking to a computer the extent
of fermentation can be followed.
4.5.2 Other Methods
• Methods of fermentation control involving the
measurement of pH value are also available.
• A sample is withdrawn from the fermenter,
the pH is measured and, if it is too high,
oxygen can be introduced to the fermenter
automatically.
 4.6 Maturation: flavor and aroma changes
• Beer, at the completion of primary
fermentation is said to be `green'.
• It contains little entrained carbon dioxide, it is
hazy and its taste and aroma are inferior to
beer that is ready for sale.
• In order to refine green beer it must be
matured or conditioned.
• This maturation process takes place in closed
containers in the brewery and beer treated in
this way is called brewery conditioned beer.
Cont…
• The process, also called `lagering' when
referring to bottom fermented beers, used to
occupy several weeks or even months, but
now is often completed in one to two weeks
and sometimes in considerably less.
• Traditionally, maturation involves a secondary
fermentation and is effected by the small
amount of yeast remaining in the beer when it
is transferred from the fermenting vessel.
Cont…
• This yeast can utilize fermentable carbohydrates
remaining in the beer at the end of primary
fermentation or small quantities of fermentable
carbohydrate added in the form of `priming sugar'.
• The carbon dioxide that is produced dissolves in
the beer because the vessel is closed and the beer
becomes `conditioned'.
• Other gases and volatile substances are produced
during maturation which are deleterious to beer
flavour, e.g., hydrogen sulphide and some
diketones.
Cont…
• Green beer is hazy as well as having an unacceptable
flavour.
• During maturation, clarification of the beer takes
place.
• Stabilization of the beer is also an important aspect of
maturation.
• The objective is to ensure that turbidity owing to
chemical precipitation or growth of micro- organisms
does not occur or, in the case of chemical
precipitation, does not recur when the beer is clear
and stable.
Cont…
• During maturation, treatments can be made to
the beer to adjust its flavour and colour by the
use of caramel or other coloring materials and
by the use of various post-fermentation hop
treatments for both bitterness and aroma.
• The flavour changes that take place as a beer
matures are profoundly important in
developing the character and hence the brand
identity of the beer.
• Successful brands generally have stable
flavors and so can be recognized by
consumers.
Cont…
• This applies to national and international brands
but even local brands will be expected to display
consistent taste.
• Flavour improves during the maturation process
but this flavour improvement is difficult to
characterize and optimize.
• There is the added factor of the effect of
oxygen, which will generally cause adverse
flavour changes and so any discussion of
flavour maturation must include a study of ways
of preventing oxidation.
4.6.1 Principles of secondary fermentation
• Secondary fermentation permits continued
activity by the yeast at a reduced rate limited
by the low temperature and the lower yeast
count in the beer.
• Traditionally after primary fermentation, the
beer would pass to the conditioning or
maturation vessel and would contain many
yeast cells/ml of beer and about 1.1%
fermentable extract).
Cont…
• In this process, the remaining yeast becomes
re-suspended and there is a small uptake of
oxygen, which activates the yeast to start the
slow secondary fermentation.
• This results in the conversion of many
unwanted flavour compounds into flavourless
products.
4.6.2 Important Flavour Changes
• Several important groups of compounds have
been identified as changing during the
maturation of beer with consequent positive
effect on beer flavour.
• The most important are: diketones (especially
diacetyl), sulphur compounds, aldehydes, and
volatile fatty acids.
Diketones
• Diacetyl and 2,3-pentanedione are produced in
all brewery fermentations.
• Diacetyl in particular has an intense sweet,
butterscotch flavour.
• This cannot be tolerated in lager beers and the
concentration in finished beer should be <0.1
mg/l.
• A period of warm conditioning (2-3 days at
14-16 ᵒc, 59 ᵒF) is very effective in reducing
the diacetyl content of beer.
Cont…
• The effective and reproducible removal of diketones
from beer is important in overall brewery efficiency.
• Delays in diacetyl removal result in delays in filtration
and hence delays in the supply of beer to packaging.
Sulphur Compounds
• Sulphur compounds are important in the overall flavour
of a beer in spite of their very low concentrations.
• Changes in the level of sulphur compounds do occur in
maturation.
• Generally, undesirable concentrations of hydrogen
sulphide are reduced during cold storage times of 5-7
days.
Cont…
Aldehydes
• Acetaldehyde in particular can affect beer
flavour.
• This arises from the oxidation of ethanol and
can occur if transfer of the beer from primary
fermentation to maturation is carelessly carried
out giving the opportunity for oxygen uptake
by the beer.
• During normal maturation, the acetaldehyde
concentration will decrease to 2-7 mg/l.
 Chapter 5. Filtration and Stabilization

5.1 Filtration

Filtering the beer stabilizes the flavor, and gives beer its

polished shine and brilliance.

Filtration ratings are divided into rough, fine, and sterile.

Rough filtration remove much of the yeast and any solids,

leaves some cloudiness in the beer, but it is noticeably clearer

than unfiltered beer.
Fine filtration removes almost all cloudiness. Sterile filtration

removes almost all microorganisms.

Cont…
Purpose of Filtration:-
 To clarify the beer from yeast and chill haze and possibly
bacteria.
 To improve the beers long term haze stability by dosing
additives during filtration.
 To adjust CO2 & alcohol content by dilution immediately
after the filter.
 5.2 Beer stabilization

• Competition between brewers is intense and the

quality and consistency of their beers is important.
• This demands that the beers following maturation
should not only have desirable, stable flavours but
must also display stability with respect to haze, i.e.,
the beers must be bright and remain so during the
period from dispatch from the brewery to drinking.
• Therefore, in addition to removing yeast, beers
must have the precursor constituents of haze
removed to ensure long-term stability.
Cont…
• The most effective beer treatment with respect
to haze stability is the cold storage of the beer
for about seven days at -1 to -2 ᵒC.
• This technique allows a reduction in the cost
of other beer treatments designed to remove
potential haze-forming proteins and
polyphenols.
 5.3 Carbonation of the beer

CO2 is a very important constituent of beer.

It imparts sparkle and mouth feel and sharpness

associated with its properties as an acid gas.

The CO2 is added to the beer by carbonation. The

amount of CO2 that will dissolve in beer depends on

temperature and pressure.
Beers that lack CO2 are dull and lifeless and are said

to lack condition and be flat.

Carbonation unit
5.4 Beer Packaging
 Packaging is putting the beer into the containers in
which it will leave the brewery.
 Typically, this means putting the beer into bottles,
aluminum cans, kegs, or casks, it may also include
putting the beer into bulk tanks for high volume
customers.
 Filler machine is used to fill the washed bottle with
beer coming from the bright beer tank.
 Cont…
The filling process has different steps.
 First the bottle is connected to the vacuum
chamber where the air inside the bottle is
sucked.
 Then it is pressurized with CO2 at a certain
pressure and filled with beer leaving at least
4%head space.
Finally it will be discharge out of the filler for
crowning using cork .
 Beer pasteurization
Bright beer may contain micro organisms
which are considered as harmful, as eventually
influence quality, flavor, aroma, etc…
Pasteurization can be
- Tunnel pasteurization
- Flash pasteurization
- Hot filling of beer
 Cont…
Tunnel pasteurization and flash pasteurization are
proven methods for biological stabilization of beer.
• To have an absolute security, the beer must be
pasteurized in the already filled bottle or can in a
tunnel pasteurizer.
In tunnel pasteurizer, the bottles and cans and their
contents are heated to the pasteurization temperature
and then cooled again.
Finished Beer Quality
Finished beer is either bottled, canned, or filled in to

kegs.
It may be tunnel pasteurized or aseptically bottled.

In either case the beer must appear fresh, bright and

without faults to the customer and hence the quality is

a matter of great concern.
The beer must also be free from microorganisms to

ensure wholesomeness and biological stability.

Cont…
Quality examination of the finished beer has three
different aspects:
- Beer tasting
- Microbiological monitoring
- Chemical and physical properties examination.
 Chapter 6. Wine processing technology

6.1 Introduction
Wine is an ancient drink that has been an important part
of human for thousands of years.
The science that deals with wine making is known as
enology.
Wine is an alcoholic beverage produced by fermentation
of grapes.
During fermentation, yeasts play a vital role in converting
sugar found in the grapes into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
 Cont…
Wine production involves many different players in a
global scale.
Many countries produce wine since many years with
different scales and quality.
Wine grapes mostly grow between the 30th and the 50th
degree of latitude, in both the Northern and Southern
hemispheres.
Grapes will sometimes grow beyond this range and minor
amounts of wine are made in some unexpected places.
Among many countries, Italy, France, Spain and United
States comprises of almost 50% of the world wine
production.
Wine Production in Ethiopia
Traditionally, Ethiopia has been making a local wine
called tedj, a type of honey-wine flavored with gesho
leaves.
However, this ancient wine-making tradition is
gradually being taken over by a much modern form of
wine-making.
Ethiopia is now growing its own grapes and
producing its own signature wine.
Due to the proximity to the equator, it is even
possible to make two harvests per year.
Cont…
Currently, there are two wineries in the country, with
a combined production of almost 12 million bottles of
wine per year.
Awash winery is by far the oldest winery in Ethiopia.
The winery has been in existence since 1936.
Awash Winery boasts more than 117 hectares of a
wine estate that sits on a mountain plateau rising to
1,200 meters above sea level.
 Cont…
Castel Winery on its part is a new player in the
Ethiopian wine-making industry.
The winery is located in the town of Ziway some 160
km south of Addis Ababa.
 Castel’s vineyards were established in 2007 as a
partnership between the Ethiopian Government and
the Castel Group.
Cont…
Wine is an alcoholic beverage obtained from the

fermented juice of freshly harvested grapes.

It is prepared from both white and black grapes.

There are many varieties of grapes produced and not all of

them are used in the production of wine.

The color, flavor, and aroma of the wine are largely

influenced by the type of grapes used in the production.

Cont…
For wine making purposes, the grapes are divided into stems,

skins, pulp (juice cells) and seeds.

The composition of grapes is of great importance in

determining the quality of the wine produced.

Many compounds are carried over from the grape juice into the

wine, and other compounds undergo reactions to form the

compounds distinctive to wine.
 Cont
• In general, grapes consist of clear juice (80%), skins
(8%), seeds (4.5%), pulp (4.5%) and stems (3%).
• The skins, seeds, pulp and stems are collectively
known as pomace.
• Grape juice consists of 79% water and 20%
carbohydrates, 1% organic acids and trace amounts of
phenolic, vitamins, minerals and nitrogenous
compounds.
 Cont
• The sugars, organic acids and phenolics give the juice its
flavor.
• The vitamins, minerals and nitrogenous compounds are,
in many cases, essential to yeast growth and
fermentation.
• Wine has a similar composition, but has much lower
levels of sugar (none in dry wines), 8 - 13% alcohol and
a greater range of minor components.
6.3 Types of Wine

• The main classifications of wine are on the basis that the grape
juice is fermented.
1. Table/Still Wine
2. Sparkling Wine
3. Fortified Wine
4. Aromatized Wine
6.3.1 Table Wine
• These include Red, White and Rose wine, which
normally accompany a meal.
• The alcoholic content is generally low when compared
with others (10 to 12 %) but some German Table wines
may have 8 - 10% alcohol.
• Generally, red meat (like beef, pork and lamb) are
served with red wines, and white meat (such as
Chicken or fish) with white wines.
 Cont
 Red Wine

 Made from red grapes

 Coloring from grape skins

 White Wine

 Made from white grapes

 Age and mature faster than red wines
 Cont
 Rose wine

 a category of red wine

 Skin removed early in fermentation
 Rose wines are wines with colors between red and white wines,
and are usually chosen by consumers on the basis of their color
and sugar content.
 The qualities usually sought in a good quality rose wine are an
attractive appearance, freshness and crisp acidity, good fruit flavors
and fresh, fruity or floral aromas.
6.3.2 Sparkling Wine

• These wines with a bubbly & sparkling character.

• This is so because of the carbon dioxide trapped in them
and it makes fizzy, which gives an effervescence when
poured in a glass.
• Alcoholic content is less that 14% these wines are drunk
on festive occasions and throughout a meal.
• Example - Champagne is the monarch in this category.
6.3.3 Fortified Wine

• These are fortified by the addition of alcohol (brandy

has been added) either during or after fermentation.
• This increase the alcoholic content from 18% to 22%.
• Examples of these wines are sherry, port, Madeira
and marsala.
• These wines are drunk either before or after a meal.
6.3.4 Aromatized Wine

• These wines have an addition of various aromatic ingredients

(such as herbs). Flavored with herbs, roots, flowers and barks
• The wines are also fortified but not to a great extent.

• The most important of these Aromatized wines is Vermouth,

which is made from natural white wines of 2-3 years old that
are blended with an extraction of wormwood, vanilla &
various other herbs and spices.
• Aromatic wines (Vermouth and Aperitif).
6.4 Wine making Processing stages

6.4.1 Harvesting
• This is a critical point during the winemaking
cycle when the grapes are picked.
• Harvesting is conducted during the cooler
periods of the day to prevent heat build-up and
flavor deterioration in the grape.
• The grower/producer must decide upon the
ripeness of the grapes and when to pick.
6.4.2 Destemming
• Destemming is the process of separating stems from
the grapes.
• Stem should be removed because it gives a
vegetative flavor to the wine.
• Crushing is the process of applying pressure on the
grapes to expose the juice.
6.4.3 Pressing
• is the act of applying pressure to grapes in order to
separate juice or wine from grapes.
• This process is omitted in the case of red wine b/c the
skin is fermented with the juice to extract the color.
6.4.4 Fermentation
• Fermentation is an exothermic process.
• It converts sugars (glucose and fructose) present in
the grapes into alcohol and carbon dioxide.
• Yeast is propagated and added to aid the wild yeasts.
• Temperature is a very influential factor in
fermentation.
Malolactic Fermentation
• Occurs when lactic acid bacteria metabolize malic
acid and produce lactic acid and carbon dioxide.
• Red wines undergo through secondary fermentation
b/c of high content of malic acid.
6.4.5 Decantation
• It is a process of decanting (transferring) of
wine from one vessel to another.
• The skins and other solids are left behind in
the fermentation vat.
• Racking can take place at various times during
winemaking/maturation process to remove the
wine from lees and sediment, and clarify it.
• Aeration can also take place during the racking
process.
6.4.6 Aging and maturation
• Aging is a process of letting wine stay for a
long period of time.
• Wine is aged to obtain desired characteristic
of wine flavor, aroma, taste, and color.
• It is used to remove broken down protein
particle, remaining died yeast cell and lees.
• The more the wine is aged, the more it will
develop favorable flavor, taste and aroma.
• It also improves clarity, stability and phenolic
compound settlement.
6.4.7 Clarification (fining)
• Lighter matter suspended in the wine known
as colloids, will not be discarded during
racking.
• They are capable of passing through any filter.
• Therefore, it is mandatory to remove them to
obtain quality wine.
• It prevents cloudiness and formation of
sediment in the bottle.
• Solid suspensions and coagulants are removed
at this stage.
6.4.8 Filtration
• Filtration is used to accomplish two objectives,
clarification and microbial stabilization.
There are two main methods
1. Sheet filtration
 Filter sheets with various ranges of porosity are
used to pass the wine through.
 Yeast cells and other matter are trapped in the fibres
of the filter media.
2. Membrane filtration
 This is the final filtration process and used just
before bottling.
Cont…
• Wine is passed under pressure across the
membrane surface to filter through, leaving
undesirable materials trapped on the membrane.
6.4.9 Bottling
• The final step in the wine making process is
putting the finished wine into bottles and labeling
it.
Wine Quality Analysis
• Final wine quality analysis mainly consists of
determining sulfur dioxide, total acidity and
alcohol content in the wine as per the standards.
 Chapter 7. Alcoholic distillates
processing technology
• Distilled spirits are fermented first, then the
alcohol is further processed, or distilled, from
the fermented liquid.
• In the distillation process, the liquid is heated
in a still (that’s where the word distilled comes
from) to at least 175º Fahrenheit.
• At this temperature, the alcohol changes from
a liquid to a gas and rises.
 Cont…
• Most of the water solution is left behind
because water does not evaporate until it
reaches 212º F.
• The high-alcohol-content gas is channeled off
and cooled so that it condenses into a liquid
again. The result is what is called a distilled
spirit.
• Distilled spirits include rum, brandy, and
whisky, and its products normally range from
40 to 70 percent alcohol.
7.1 Types of distilled beverages
Whisky
• Whisky is the spirit distilled from distillation of
a fermented mash of grains, usually barley, with
wheat or maize or a mixture of the two.
• The distilled drink is then aged in wooden
barrels.
Liqueur
• An alcoholic beverage produced by combining
spirits with fruits, herbs and other flavouring
elements and containing 2.5% by weight of
sugar.
Cont…
Rum
• Rum is an alcoholic beverage distilled from
fermented sugarcane such as sugarcane juice,
sugarcane syrup and molasses.
• It is distilled at less than 190 proof (95% abv)
and bottled at not less than 80 proof (40%
abv).
7.2 Raw materials and quality features
• The raw materials used for making a distilled spirit
are of two basic types:
(1) those containing a high concentration of natural
sugars or
(2) those containing other carbohydrates that can
easily be converted to sugars by enzymes.
• Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts to promote
chemical reactions.
• Most enzymes are specific in their action, so that a
system of several enzymes is necessary, for example,
to convert starch into sugar and ultimately into ethyl
alcohol.
Cont…
• The amylases are enzymes that convert
starches into sugars; sprouting grains—
especially barley— are natural sources of these
enzymes.
• Yeast has a complex enzyme system that
converts sugar into carbon dioxide and a
multiplicity of other products, including ethyl
alcohol.
Sugary materials
• Sugary vegetables include sugarcane, sugar beets, and
Agave tequilana (a type of cactus).
• Sugarcane and its products, including cane juices,
molasses, and sugar, are the most important of the
vegetable group.
• Sugarcane is used in making rum and an alcohol derived
from rum.
• Sugarcane juice can be pressed from the cane for use as
the base raw material for fermentation, or the juice may
be concentrated for sugar production, with the molasses
residue from the sugar crystallization used as a base for
fermentation. This process is also applied to sugar beets.
Starchy materials
• Corn (maize) is the most important cereal grain
employed; it is produced worldwide.
• Rye grain, though less efficient in fermentation
than corn, is used extensively in whiskey
production, primarily for the flavor
characteristics it imparts to the final product.
• Rice, a widely grown cereal, has limited use in
distilled spirits production outside of Asia from
India to Japan.
• Barley grain, probably the first cereal employed
for distillation in large quantities.
7.3 Mashing
• The purpose of the mashing operation is to
(1) mix the proper proportions of grains,
(2) increase the availability of the starch for enzyme
action, and
(3) convert the starches into fermentable sugars.
• Mashing is done in a vessel called a mash tun, which
is equipped with a means of agitation for mixing and
is either jacketed or contains coils for heating and
cooling.
• In mashing, the starch cells of the grain, enclosed in
their own protective coatings, are broken to allow
wetting and liquefaction of the entire starch mass.
Cont…
• The process usually begins with the grain most difficult
to treat.
• When corn is used, the ground meal is wetted at a
temperature of approximately 66 °C (150 °F), and the
temperature is then raised to boiling or sometimes
higher while under pressure.
• The temperature is reduced when the starch cells are
broken.
• The grain ranking second in cell resistance (usually
rye) is added next.
• Other starchy substances, such as potatoes, are usually
crushed and heated, exploding the starch cells.
7.4 Fermentation

• In the fermentation process, simple sugars,

including dextrose and maltose, are converted
to ethyl alcohol by the action of yeast
enzymes.
• Several intermediate compounds are formed
during this complex chemical process before
the final ethyl alcohol is obtained.
• Yeast functions best in a slightly acid medium,
and the prepared grain mash, fruit juice,
molasses, or other mixture must be checked
for adequate acidity (pH value).
Cont…
• If acidity is insufficient, acid or acid-bearing
material is added to achieve the necessary
adjustment.
• The previously prepared yeast is then added,
and final dilution of the mixture is made.
• The final concentration of sugars is adjusted so
that the yeast fermentation will produce a
finished fermented mixture containing
between 7 and 9 percent alcohol.
Cont…
• Most plants now use closed stainless steel vats for easier cleaning,
and many are equipped with jackets or cooling coils for better
temperature control.
• The time required for completion of fermentation is mainly
dependent upon the temperature of the fermenting mash. Normal
yeast is most effective in breaking down all of the fermentable
sugars at temperatures ranging from 24 to 29 °C (75 to 85 °F), and,
in this range, completion of fermentation requires from 48 to 96
hours.
• Fermentation at lower temperatures requires longer periods. The
mash is ready for distillation upon completion of fermentation.
• If fermentation is allowed to continue past this period, it will be
adversely affected by bacterial action. The ethyl alcohol content
will be reduced, and the flavour and aroma of the finished product
will be tainted.
7.5 Distillation

• Distillation is the separation by vaporization of

the fermentable liquid to create alcohol.
• Alcohol has a lower boiling point than water
(78.5°C or 172°F compared to 100°C for
water), so the alcohol vaporizes into steam.
• Basic distillation apparatus consists of three
parts: the still or retort, for heating the liquid;
the condenser, for cooling the vapors; and the
receiver, for collecting the distillate.
7.6 Aging

• One method of classifying distilled liquors is

as aged or unaged. Vodka, neutral spirits for
use in a variety of products, most gins, and
some rums and brandies are unaged.
• Aged products are predominantly whiskeys
and most rums and brandies.
• The term age refers to the actual duration of
storage, while maturity expresses the degree to
which chemical changes occur during storage.
Cont…
• The aging process, which typically ranges from
4 to 8 years or more, consists of storing the new
whisky distillate in oak barrels to encourage
chemical reactions and extractions between the
whisky and the wood.
• The constituents of the barrel produce the
whisky's characteristic color and distinctive
flavor and aroma.
• White oak is used because it is one of the few
woods that holds liquids while allowing
breathing (gas exchange) through the wood.
Cont…
• The oak barrels and the barrel environment are
key to producing distilled spirits of desired
quality.
• The new whisky distillate undergoes many types
of physical and chemical changes during the
aging process that removes the harshness of the
new distillate.
• As whisky ages, it extracts and reacts with
constituents in the wood of the barrel, producing
certain trace substances, called congeners, which
give whisky its distinctive color, taste, and aroma.
7.7 Blending &Packaging

Blending
• Blending is another method of obtaining a balanced
product with precise flavor characteristics.
• Blended products are composed of one or more
highly flavored components, a high-proof
component, a colour adjustment ingredient, and an
additional flavoring material.
• An example is a blended whiskey, which may
contain several whiskeys, a grain spirit distilled at
90 to 95 percent alcohol, caramel coloring, and
perhaps a small amount of a flavoring blender.
Cont…
Bottling
• Distilled spirits react upon exposure to many
substances, extracting materials from the container
that tend to destroy the liquor aroma and flavor.
• For this reason, glass, being nonreactive, has been
the universal container for packaging alcoholic
liquors.
• A few products are now packaged in plastic
bottles, but these are primarily 50- millilitre
miniatures, the light weight of which is
particularly suited for use by airlines.
 Chapter 8. Carbonated soft drink processing

8.1 Introduction
8.2 Water treatment

• Water constitutes some 90% of a typical soft

drink.
• The quality of the water used must meet very
stringent standards, as each bottle or can of a
given drink must be indistinguishable from all
others.
• Any ‘off’ taste in the water used will be carried
over to the soft drink.
• For these reasons, all the water used in a soft
drinks plant must conform to an agreed
specification.
Cont…
• Each major soft drinks manufacturer has its
own standards, developed over the years
through trial and error.
• These standards ensure that wherever a
particular drink is produced the taste and
quality are the same.
• In addition, risk to the consumer and to the
business must be considered at all times.
• If the water used is contaminated in any way,
the risk to the business increases.
 Cont…
• Water is usually supplied from two main sources.
• A soft drinks bottler either buys the water from a
local water company or obtains it from a company
borehole.
• If the water is bought from a local water company,
it is normally piped to the bottler to a minimum
agreed standard.
• It is the duty of the bottler to have a written
agreement with the water supplier to the effect that
the water should be supplied to this minimum
standard.
Cont…
• Whether the water comes from a borehole or
from the town mains, it must comply with
current national legislation as well as meet the
company water standard.
• This generally implies some form of water
treatment.
• In the simplest form of treatment, the water
would just be passed through a sand filter to
remove any particulates and a carbon filter to
remove any organic material and possible taints
and odours.
Cont…
• Finally the polishing filter down to 2 μm
absolute would be used. At this level
cryptosporidium is removed.
• If the water is hard, it is usual to install a
coagulation plant, though in modern plants it
is preferable to use ion exchange, or even
ultrafiltration, owing to the difficulty of
controlling the coagulation process.
Cont…
• In areas where large amounts of fertilizers have
been used, the water is often high in nitrates.
These need to be removed by ion exchange.
• Chlorination of the water is frequently used to
ensure it is free from harmful micro-organisms.
• The carbon filter would then remove any residual
chlorine.
• Finally the water should be passed under an
ultraviolet (UV) lamp to ensure final disinfection.
• Often two sets of lamps are used, one after water
treatment and a second at the point of use.
• In this way any problems caused through poor
sanitation in the water pipework are alleviated.
8.3 Ingredients and formulation of carbonated soft
drinks
• The term ‘soft drink’ applies to beverages
containing flavourings and/or fruit juices together
with other constituents of technological or
nutritional value designed to enhance the
appearance and stability of the product and to
ensure its organoleptic properties are maintained
for a reasonable shelf life.
• In order to meet current stringent quality and
legislative controls a new beverage is subjected to
extensive trials to assess the suitability and
performance of all its components, and it is
essential to arrive at the correct formulation to
8.3.1 Water
• Water, as the main component of a soft drink, usually accounts
for between 85 and 95% of the product and acts as a carrier for
the other ingredients.
• It must conform to rigid quality requirements and not interfere
with the taste, appearance, carbonation or other properties of the
drink.
• Water should be free from
• high levels of elements and mineral salts
• objectionable tastes and odours
• organic material.
It should also be
• clear and colourless
• free from dissolved oxygen
• sterile, that is, free from micro-organisms.
Cont…
• Water for use in soft drinks should ideally be soft
or medium-soft.
• ‘Total hardness’ is the sum of temporary and
permanent hardness.
• Measurement is expressed as the equivalent
concentration of calcium carbonate in milligrams
per litre or parts per million metre per volume
and is also termed ‘degree of hardness’.
Soft: <50 mg/l as CaCO 3

Medium-soft: 50–100 mg/l as CaCO 3

8.3.2 Saccharides and high-intensity sweeteners
• Sugar’ is the disaccharide sucrose, which is the
benchmark for other sweetener types.
• In acid solutions sucrose can undergo a
process known as inversion, breaking down
into its constituent monosaccharides, glucose
(or dextrose) and fructose (or laevulose).
• Glucose is less sweet than sucrose (relative
sweetness = 0.6) and fructose is sweeter
(relative sweetness = 1.5).
• Consequently, a desired sweetness profile can
be achieved by selective combination of these
Bulk sweetners
• The term ‘bulk sweeteners’ is used for sugars
whose normal usage level in beverages places
them as the second ingredient, behind
carbonated water, in the product declaration.
• This level is typically at 7–12%, depending
upon product type and market preference.
Both dry and liquid forms are available.
• Granulated sugar (sucrose) is the dry,
crystallized, highly purified form produced via
extraction of sugar cane and sugar beet.
Cont…
• Liquid sugar, which is widely used, is the standard
product, an aqueous solution of sucrose at 67% m/m
(67◦ Brix) at 20◦C.
• Other bulk sweeteners, often referred to as ‘corn
syrups’, are glucose syrup and high fructose glucose
syrup (HFGS).
• Both are formed by the controlled hydrolysis of
starch.
Intense Sweetners
• The use of intense sweeteners has increased
significantly over the past 20 years owing to
the appearance, and acceptance, of new types
in the market.
• Saccharin, the first intense sweetener to be
used on a commercial scale, has a difficult
taste profile that can seldom be masked with
any success in application.
• During its long history, consumers have had
to accept its often bitter/metallic aftertaste.
Cont…
• In 1983 aspartame and acesulfame K were approved for use
under the European Sweeteners (aspartame in particular) as
a replacement for saccharin.
Carbon dioxide
• In carbonated beverages there is an additional
effect of dissolved carbon dioxide gas.
• Although it is not officially recognized as an
acidulant, its inclusion provides extra sparkle,
mouth feel, flavor and sharpness to the drink.
• Carbon dioxide is a colourless gas; it is a product
of animal respiration and is also formed during the
combustion of carbon.
Cont…
• The solubility of CO2 in water varies according to the
temperature of the water and the pressure of the gas.
• It decreases with increased temperature and increases
with increased pressure.
Acidulants
• Acidulants are an essential part of beverage
formulation, with the acid component usually third in
order of concentration.
• Acidity has a variety of functions in addition to its
primary thirst-quenching properties, which are the
result of stimulation of saliva flow in the mouth.
Cont…
• Because of the consequent reduction in pH, an
acidulant can act as a mild preservative and in some
respects as a flavor enhancer, depending on the other
components present.
Eg:- Citric acid, tartaric acid, phosphoric acid, malic
acid etc…
Flavorings
• It is the flavor of a drink that provides not only a
generic identity but also its unique character.
• This part of the sensory profile is responsible for
pleasing and attracting the consumer.
Cont…
• A flavoring consists of a mixture of aromatic
substances carefully balanced to convey the
right message to the sensory receptors of the
consumer.
• The preparation of such a mixture is a serious
matter: the flavorist, like the perfumer, must be
well versed in the technique, creative and able
to translate ideas into a practical product.
Colors
• Colour provides a means of correctly presenting a beverage to
the consumer so that the perceived organoleptic attributes are
correctly ordered in a sequence of appreciation.
• Both quality and quantity of colour are of importance, and
certain colors will evoke, or perhaps complement, a particular
taste.
• Reds will favour the fruitiness of soft drinks, for example,
blackcurrant, raspberry and strawberry.
• Orange and yellow tend towards the citrus flavours.
• colour is a major parameter in the assessment of quality,
serving at the time of production to standardise the product.
• It can also provide useful information about quality changes
during storage, such as colour deterioration resulting from
temperature fluctuations or microbial spoilage effects.
Preservatives
• A preservative can be defined as any substance that is
capable of inhibiting, retarding or arresting the growth
of micro-organisms or any deterioration of food due to
microorganisms or of masking the evidence of any
such deterioration.
• Sulphurdioxide is one of the most versatile agents used
in food preservation and is well known for its
microbiocidal effect on bacteria, moulds and yeasts.
• Nowadays it is generally employed in the form of a
sulphur-dioxide-generating salt.
• Other preservatives used include benzoic acid, sorbic
acid and their salts.
Cont…
More functional ingredients
• The functionality of the ingredients tends to
contribute self evidently to the main identity of the
drink.
• Apart from the preservatives, these ingredients are
used primarily for taste and colour.
• Other ingredients also serve to improve performance
and further characterise the drink.
• These ingredients include stabilizers, saponins,
antioxidants…
8.4 Syrup preparation and syrup room
operation
• The syrup is usually prepared in the syrup
room in a concentrated form, typically in the
ratio 3 parts syrup to 17 parts water.
• For juice products this is much less down to
the order of 1 part syrup to 3 parts water.
• The syrup is prepared normally in batch
vessels using water and liquid sugar feed
through volumetric flow meters.
Cont…
• A pre-mix is made up and metered to the syrup tank,
using water as the wash through at a metered level.
• However, the vessels are often open to atmosphere and
have rather crude blending arrangement, rather than the
more sophisticated mixers used in modern vessels.
• Nowadays these are situated in an air-conditioned
specially designed area set to a high standard with the
production of food stuffs.
• The plant is PLC controlled with in-line clean-in-place
(CIP) systems.
• Banks of valves with a lot of pipelines and stainless
steel tanks are available.
Cont…
• Meters have now progressed from volumetric to mass
flow, where density correction of key ingredients can
be incorporated.
• The advantage to these systems is that they produce
the final beverage on the premise of getting the
product right first before carbonating.
• Once the pre-mix is made up and checked, itwas
possible to start the syrup batch.
• The unit normally comprises two meters, one for
water and one for all the other ingredients.
• The recipe is set in the computer, which interface
with the PLC control system.
• The route is selected on the PC, including which
Cont…
• All pipelines are left with water in them after the
previous batch.
• The amount in this pipeline to any particular tank
is known. The sugar is then metered into the
tank.
• Following this, a known amount of water is
metered through to wash the line out.
• This is then repeated for each ingredient, whether
this be citric acid, malic acid, pre-mix or juice.
• At the end of the batch a further known quantity
of water is added.
Cont…
• The final syrup is produced to a much higher
accuracy than the recipe specification, which
has led to cost savings as well as better
uniformity of product as delivered to the
consumer.
 8.5 Carbon dioxide, carbonation and the
principles of filling Technology
• Carbonated water is water containing carbon
dioxide and is produced by passing carbon
dioxide under pressure through water.
• To produce a ready to drink (RTD) carbonated
soft drink, carbonated water is combined with
a syrup.