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M7-Logic AGENT WUMPUS PEAS
M7-Logic AGENT WUMPUS PEAS
Chapter 7
Outline
Knowledge-based agents Wumpus world Logic in general - models and entailment Propositional (Boolean) logic Equivalence, validity, satisfiability Inference rules and theorem proving
forward chaining backward chaining resolution
Knowledge bases
Knowledge base = set of sentences in a formal language Declarative approach to building an agent (or other system):
Tell it what it needs to know
Then it can Ask itself what to do - answers should follow from the KB Agents can be viewed at the knowledge level
i.e., what they know, regardless of how implemented
Logic in general
Logics are formal languages for representing information such that conclusions can be drawn Syntax defines the sentences in the language Semantics define the "meaning" of sentences;
i.e., define truth of a sentence in a world
Entailment
Entailment means that one thing follows from another: KB Knowledge base KB entails sentence if and only if is true in all worlds where KB is true
E.g., the KB containing the Giants won and the Reds won entails Either the Giants won or the Reds won E.g., x+y = 4 entails 4 = x+y
Models
Logicians typically think in terms of models, which are formally structured worlds with respect to which truth can be evaluated We say m is a model of a sentence if is true in m M() is the set of all models of Then KB iff M(KB) M()
E.g. KB = Giants won and Reds won = Giants won
Consider possible models for KB assuming only pits 3 Boolean choices 8 possible models
Wumpus models
Wumpus models
Wumpus models
Wumpus models
Wumpus models
Inference
KB i = sentence can be derived from KB by procedure i Soundness: i is sound if whenever KB i , it is also true that KB Completeness: i is complete if whenever KB , it is also true that KB i Preview: we will define a logic (first-order logic) which is expressive enough to say almost anything of interest, and for which there exists a sound and complete inference procedure.
With these symbols, 8 possible models, can be enumerated automatically. Rules for evaluating truth with respect to a model m: S S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 i.e., S1 S2 is true iff is true iff is true iff is true iff is false iff is true iff S is false S1 is true and S2 is true S1is true or S2 is true S1 is false or S2 is true S1 is true and S2 is false S1S2 is true andS2S1 is true
Inference by enumeration
Depth-first enumeration of all models is sound and complete
Logical equivalence
Two sentences are logically equivalent} iff true in same models: iff and
Proof methods
Proof methods divide into (roughly) two kinds:
Application of inference rules
Legitimate (sound) generation of new sentences from old Proof = a sequence of inference rule applications Can use inference rules as operators in a standard search algorithm Typically require transformation of sentences into a normal form
Model checking
truth table enumeration (always exponential in n)
Resolution
Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF)
conjunction of disjunctions of literals clauses E.g., (A B) (B C D)
m1 mn
li li-1 li+1 lk m1 mj-1 mj+1 ... mn where li and mj are complementary literals. E.g., P1,3 P2,2, P2,2 P1,3
Resolution
Soundness of resolution inference rule:
(li li-1 li+1 lk) li mj (m1 mj-1 mj+1 ... mn) (li li-1 li+1 lk) (m1 mj-1 mj+1 ... mn)
Conversion to CNF
B1,1 (P1,2 P2,1) 1. Eliminate , replacing with ( )( ). 2.
(B1,1 (P1,2 P2,1)) ((P1,2 P2,1) B1,1)
Resolution algorithm
Proof by contradiction, i.e., show KB unsatisfiable
Resolution example
KB = (B1,1 (P1,2 P2,1)) B1,1 = P1,2
Modus Ponens (for Horn Form): complete for Horn KBs 1, ,n, 1 n
Can be used with forward chaining or backward chaining. These algorithms are very natural and run in linear time
Forward chaining
Idea: fire any rule whose premises are satisfied in the KB,
add its conclusion to the KB, until query is found
Proof of completeness
1. FC reaches a fixed point where no new atomic sentences are derived 2. 2. Consider the final state as a model m, assigning true/false to symbols 3. 3. Every clause in the original KB is true in m 4.
a1 ak b
Backward chaining
Idea: work backwards from the query q:
to prove q by BC,
check if q is known already, or prove by BC all premises of some rule concluding q
Complete backtracking search algorithms DPLL algorithm (Davis, Putnam, Logemann, Loveland) Incomplete local search algorithms
WalkSAT algorithm
Summary
Logical agents apply inference to a knowledge base to derive new information and make decisions Basic concepts of logic:
syntax: formal structure of sentences semantics: truth of sentences wrt models entailment: necessary truth of one sentence given another inference: deriving sentences from other sentences soundness: derivations produce only entailed sentences completeness: derivations can produce all entailed sentences
Wumpus world requires the ability to represent partial and negated information, reason by cases, etc.