DEEPASHREE A P

EC DEPARTMENT
VCET PUTTUR
 Electromagnetism describes the relationship between electricity and magnetism
 We use electromagnets to generate electricity, store memory on our computers,
generate pictures on a television screen
 Electromagnetism works on the principle that an electric current through

a wire generates a magnetic field

 In a bar magnet, the magnetic field runs from the North to the South Pole.
 In a wire, the magnetic field forms around the wire.
 An electromagnet can be created by wrap wire around a metal object

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 Magnetic field:
 When DC electricity is passed through a wire, a magnetic field rotates around the
wire in a specific direction.
 When bars of magnetic materials Iron, Cobalt

Nickel are wound with a coil and current is

passed though them, they become electromagnets.
 The strength of such an electromagnet depends

on the number of turns in the coil and the magnitude

of the current passing through it
 The region or space around a magnet in which the

magnetic effects are felt is known as the magnetic field.

 The magnetic field is represented by magnetic lines of force, which start from

the North Pole and go into the South Pole

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 Contd..
 The magnetic lines of force are always closed lines.
 The magnetic lines of force are purely

imaginary lines.
 They do not intersect each other.
 They are like elastic bands which always try

to shorten themselves.

Magnetic Flux (ɸ):

 The entire magnetic lines of force representing a magnetic field is known as the
magnetic flux.
 Its unit is weber, abbreviated as Wb, named after Wilhelm Eduard Weber

(1804-91), a German Physicist.

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Magnetic Flux Density (B):
The magnetic flux per unit area, the area being normal to the lines of flux is known

as the flux density.

The unit is Weber per square metre (Wb/m2) or Tesla (T).
 Wb/m 2
or T
B
a

Magneto-Motive Force or M.M.F. :

M.M.F. is defined as the magnetic force, which creates magnetic flux in a
magnetic material.
M.M.F = N * I ampere turns (AT), Where, N = Number of turns in the coil, I =
Current through the coil
Reluctance (R):
Reluctance is the property of a magnetic material by virtue of which, it opposes the
creation of magnetic flux in it.
R= M.M.F/Magnetic Flux =N*I/Ф ampere turns per weber (AT/Wb).

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Permeability:
Permeability is basically the property of the magnetic material by virtue of which
the magnetic flux can be easily created in it
For any magnetic material, there are two permeabilities:

(i) Absolute permeability (ii) Relative permeability

Absolute Permeability (µ):
The absolute permeability of a magnetic material is defined as the flux induced in

the magnetic material per unit magnetising force.

B
 Where, H = magnetising force
H
Relative Permeability (µr):
For defining the relative permeability of a magnetic material, the permeability of
free space or air is taken as reference.
The relative permeability of free space or air is taken as unity. i.e µr = 1, for free

space or air.
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 Contd..
 The relative permeability is defined as the ratio of the flux density induced in the
magnetic to the flux density induced in free space or air when the same
magnetising force is applied B
r 
Bo
 ‘µ ’ is dimensionless , If the permeability of iron is 500, it means that, iron is 500
r

times more magnetic than free space or air.

Magnetising Force (H): This is also referred as magnetic field strength or
magnetic field intensity
 The magnetic field intensity at any point in a magnetic field is defined as the force
experienced by a unit North Pole placed at that point, both in magnitude and
direction.
 The magnetising force may also be defined as the number of ampere turns
NI
produced per unit length H 
l
AT/m
7
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 Contd..
 Each line of magnetic flux forms a closed loop, as shown by the dotted lines
in Figures given below :

 Attraction flux
b/w magnets Repulsion b/w magnets
Lines of magnetic never intersect
 Lines of magnetic flux are like stretched elastic cords, always trying to shorten
themselves
 Lines of magnetic flux which are parallel and in the same direction repel one another

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 Faraday’s Laws:
First Law: Whenever the flux linking with a conductor changes, an emf is induced in it.
Second Law: The magnitude of the emf induced in a conductor or coil is equal to the rate
of change of flux linkages of it.
Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states that:
Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to be
"induced" in the coil
The change could be produced by changing the magnetic field strength, moving a magnet
toward or away from the coil, moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field, rotating the
coil relative to the magnet, etc.

E= -N d
dt
where ‘E’= electromotive force in volts,N= No.of turns of wire,Ф=Magnetic flux density in
webers
The induced emf in a coil is equal to the negative of the rate of change of magnetic flux
times the number of turns in the coil
 It involves the interaction of charge with magnetic field.

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 Contd..
 Electromagnetic induction is the production of voltage across a conductor situated in a
changing magnetic field or a conductor moving through a stationary magnetic field.

 Faraday found that the electromotive force (EMF) produced around a closed path is
proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux through any surface bounded by
that path.
 In practice, this means that an electrical current will be induced in any closed circuit
when the magnetic flux through a surface bounded by the conductor changes.
 Electromagnetic induction underlies the operation of generators, all electric motors,
transformers, inductio motors, synchronous motors, solenoids, and most other electrical
machines.

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 Contd..
The laws of induction are:
(1) A changing magnetic field induces an electromagnetic force in a conductor
(2) The electromagnetic force is proportional to the rate of change of the field
(3) The direction of the induced electromagnetic force depends on the orientation
of the field.
 Lenz Law:
 “The emf induced in an electric circuit always acts in such a direction that the
current it drives around the circuit opposes the change in magnetic flux which
produces the emf”.
 The direction mentioned in Lenz's law can be thought of as the result of the minus
sign in the below equation
d
dt
E= - N
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Contd..
 When an emf is generated by a change in magnetic flux according to Faraday's
Law, the polarity of the induced emf is such that it produces a current whose
magnetic field opposes the change which produces it
 The induced magnetic field inside any loop of wire always acts to keep the
magnetic flux in the loop constant

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 Fleming’s Rules:
• The relative directions of the magnetic field, current, and motion in an electric generator
or motor, can be represented using one's fingers.
• The three directions are represented by the thumb (for motion), forefinger (for field), and
middle finger (for conventional current), all held at right angles to each other.
• The right hand is used for generators and the left for motors. The rules were devised by
the English physicist John Fleming.
Fleming's Right hand rule:
• The Right hand is held with the thumb index finger
and middle finger mutually at right angles.
• The Fore finger represents the direction of
the Magnetic Field.
• The Middle finger represents the direction of
the Induced E.M.F or Current
• The Thumb represents the direction of the
Motion of the Conductor.
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 An emf is induced in a coil or conductor whenever there is change in the flux
linkages.
 Depending on the way in which the changes are brought about, there are two types:
 Statically induced E.M.F and
 Dynamically induced E.M.F
Consider a coil of ‘N’ turns as shown in Figure to which an alternating voltage ‘V’ is
applied, due to which an alternating current ‘I’ flows through the coil.
 This alternating current, produces
an alternating flux ‘ɸ’ which links the coil.
 Hence, an e.m.f is induced in thed
coil,
which is given by the e  N
equation.
dt

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 Contd..
 This induced e.m.f. opposes its own cause.
 Thus induced e.m.f opposes the applied voltage, which is the very cause of it.
The change of flux linking an electric circuit can take place in two ways.
 When a conductor cuts across a magnetic field of constant flux density, the flux changes
and an e.m.f. is induced in the conductor. This type of e.m.f. induced is known as
dynamically induced e.m.f.
 When the electric circuit is in the form of a stationary coil , produces an alternating
flux ,due to current passing through coil which links the coil.
 An e.m.f. is induced in the stationary coil. This type of e.m.f induced is known as
statically induced e.m.f.
Dynamically Induced E.M.F:
 The emf induced in a conductor due to the relative motion between the magnetic field and
the conductor is called the dynamically induced emf.

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 Dynamically induced emf is obtained either,
1. Keeping the magnetic field stationary and moving the conductor in the
magnetic field.
2. Keeping the conductor stationary and moving the field over the conductor.
Expression for Dynamically Induced E.M.F:
 Consider a single conductor of
length ‘Ɩ’ meters moving at right angles
 A uniform magnetic field of ‘B’ wb/m2
 Velocity of ‘ϑ’ m/s.
 Suppose the conductor moves through
a small distance ‘dx’ in ‘dt’ seconds.
 Then the area swept by the conductor = ‘Ɩ dx’
 Flux cut = dɸ = Flux density × Area swept
= B X Ɩ dx weber

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 Contd..
 According to faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction emf ‘e’ induced in the
conductor is given by
 d dx
eN  Bl  Bl
dt dt
Volts (N=1, dɸ = B* Ɩ *dx) and dx/dt = ϑ
(Velocity)
 If the conductor moves at an angle of ‘θ’ to the magnetic field then the velocity at
which the conductor moves across the field is
‘ϑ sinθ’

e = B Ɩ ϑ sinθ
where e = induced e.m.f
B = magnetic field
ϑ = velocity of conductor
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 Statically Induced E.M.F:
 When both magnetic field and the conductor are stationary, emf induced in a
conductor or coil due to the variation of flux linking with the conductor is called
statistically induced emf.
 In this neither the conductor nor the magnetic field moves, but the strength of the
magnetic field varies.
Applications:
 Dynamically induced emf principle is used in D.C generators, alternators, in cycle
dynamo etc.
 Statically induced emf principle is used in all types of transformers like power
transformers, distribution transformers and chokes.
There are two types of statically induced emf’s. They are :
 Self-induced emf
 Mutually-induced emf

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There are two types of statically induced emf’s. They are
1.Self-induced emf
2.Mutually-induced emf
1.Self-induced E.M.F:
 Self inductance is defined as the induction of a voltage in a current-carrying wire
when the current in the wire itself is changing.
Flux lines

Coil

 In the case of self-inductance, the magnetic field created by a changing current

(AC) in the circuit itself induces a voltage in the same circuit
 Self induced enf will be in opposition to the applied voltage

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Contd..
d
eL   N
dt
eL = Induced emf & measured in volts.
where N = Number of turns of the coil, ɸ = Flux linking with the coil
‘-ve sign’ indicates induced emf is in the direction opposite to the applied
voltage.
 Increasing the number of turns or the rate of change of magnetic flux increases
the amount of induced voltage
d d di di
eL   N  N   L
dt dt di dt
d 
where LN N
di I

 ‘L’ is a constant
d  known as self inductance of the coil
 i
di I
is a constant because
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 Contd..
N N .NI N2
L  
I IR l / 0 r a
 0  r aN 2
Therefore L  Wb/m2
Energy Stored in an Inductor:
l
 An inductor is an inductive coil, which possesses both inductance and a small
resistance.
 If the resistance is neglected, it is called as an ideal inductor
 A pure inductance does not consume any energy and the energy supplied to the
coil is stored in the form of an electromagnetic field.
 The induced e.m.f opposes any change in the value of the current flowing through
the coil
 Hence in order to establish a steady current of ‘I’ amperes in ‘t’ seconds, work has
to be done to overcome the opposition due to the induced e.m.f.

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Contd..
 If Induced emf

 Applied voltage

 The work done in ‘dt’ seconds is given by,

di
dw  Vi dt  L i dt  Li di
dt
 The work done in ‘t’ seconds is given by t I
W   dw   Li di
0 0
I
i  2
W  L  i di  L   apply the lim from 0  I
0  2
2
I
L
2
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 Contd..
 This work done is stored in the coil in the form of an electromagnetic field.
 The energy stored in a coil of inductance ‘L’ henrys(H) in the form of an electromagnetic
field is given by I2
EL Joules
2

Mutually-induced E.M.F:
 Two coils, which are placed close to each other are said to be mutually coupled, when a
part of the alternating flux produced in one coil links the other coil
 An e.m.f is induced in both the coils.
 The e.m.f. induced in the first coil, where the flux is produced, is called as self induced
e.m.f
 The e.m.f. induced in the second coil, which links a part of the flux produced in the first
coil, is known as mutually induced e.m.f. 25
ECE Dept VCET PUTTUR
 Contd..
• In figure flux ɸ1, links coil 1 and hence an e.m.f. ‘e1’ is induced in it.
d1
e1   N 1
dt
• This flux ɸ12 which links both coil 1 and coil 2,
is called as the mutual flux between the two coils.
ɸ1 = ɸ11 + ɸ12
• The mutual flux ɸ12 linking coil 2, induces
an e.m.f. el2 in that coil. This e.m.f. is known as
the mutually induced e.m.f d1 2
e1 2   N 2
dt
di1
e1 2   M 1 2
The equation for e12 is also written as dt
i.e e.m.f induced in coil 2 due to current flowing in coil 1
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  Contd..
 M12 is known as the mutual inductance between coil 1 and coil 2, the equation for
the mutual inductance MI2 may be written as
d12
M 12  N2
di1
 Similarly equations can be written, when coil 2 is energised by an alternating
current i2, producing a total flux ɸ2 in it, as shown in figure.
ɸ2= ɸ22 + ɸ21
ɸ2 = total flux produced in coil 2.
ɸ22 = flux that links only coi1.2
ɸ21 = flux that links both coil d22and coil 1.
e2   N 2
The self induced e.m.f. in coil 2 is given, by
dt


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 Contd..
d 21 di2
 The mutually induced e.m.f in coil 1 is given bye21   N 1   M 21
dt dt
d 21
M 21   N 1
di2 Where M21 is the mutual inductance

 As the coupling between the two coils is bilateral M12 = M21 = M

 The mutual inductance between any two coils, which are placed
close to each other, can be defined as the ability of one coil to
induce an e.m.f in the other coil, when an alternating current flows
through one of the coils.

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Coefficient of Coupling (K):
 The Coefficient of Coupling (K) between two coils is defined as the fraction of
magnetic flux produced by the current in one coil that links the other coil.
 The Co-efficient of coupling is the ratio of the mutual flux to the total flux.

 The Coefficient of Coupling (K) has a maximum value of 1 (or 100%)

 The Coefficient of Coupling has a minimum value of zero which indicates that
the two coils are magnetically isolated
 Suppose the two coils have self inductances L and L and M is the mutual
1 2
inductance, then the Coefficient of Coupling
 is
K 12  12 and K 21  21
1 2
as coupling is bilateral

K 12  K 21  K so 12  K  21  K 2
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 Contd..
M  M 12  M 21
d12 d 21
M  N2  N1
di1 di2
d ( K1 ) d ( K 2 )
 N1 N 2 
di1 di2
d1 d 2
 K N1
2
 N2
di1 di2
 K L1 L2
2

M
K
L1 L2

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 Commutatively connected

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