CHAPTER TWO

APPROACHES TO ETHICS

• Ethics is the study of what is good or bad, what is right or wrong,

what is acceptable and what is immoral or morally sound in
human activities.
The major branches of ethics were includes normative and none
normative ethics.
Traditionally, normative ethics (moral theory) is the study of what
makes an action of human beings morally right or wrong, good or
bad, acceptable or unacceptable.
In Ethics, human beings ask questions about the nature of
morality; what the nature of morality is? How we describe
morality? What are the characteristics of morality?
 Cont…

• Thus, in order to answer such questions, we have to employ

moral theories. Because, all moral theories address the
questions of;
1) What is Good?
2) Why it’s Good? and
3) Where the Good is located?
If there is anything “easy” about moral inquiry, it’s the fact that
there are only three basic kinds of prescriptive moral theories:
teleological, deontological and virtue-based theories.
 Cont…
Unfortunately, they often (but not always) provide different and
mostly conflicting answers to these basic questions.
N.B:-Normative ethics poses the questions like; are there general
principles or rules that we could follow which distinguish between
right and wrong actions of human being?
In general, these views have been of two sorts: Deontological
theory and Teleological theory
(1)Deontological theory; to determine actions as good or bad, it
depends up on the intension of the doer of the action. And an
action is judged as right or wrong, moral or immoral depending
on what happens because of it.
 Cont…

(2) Teleological theory; to determine actions of human being as good

or bad, it depends up on the consequences of the action.
According to this view, the outcome of an action justify moral act as
bad or good.
As of Teleological Ethics/Consequentialism, “The end justifies the
means”.
This is to mean that; any act is right if and only if it produces, will
probably produce, or is intended to produce at least as a great,
(a balance of good over evil).
Teleologists have often been hedonists; means, they identify the good
with pleasure and evil with pain. Means; Good=pleasure, while,
Evil=Pain.
 Egoism: 1. Ethical Egoism and 2. Psychological Egoism

1. Ethical Egoism
This theory is called ethical egoism simply, because, it is an ethical
theory which deals about how we ought to behave in all
situations/actions/ by being selfish.
The theory implies that; when we act an action, always we ought to
be selfish. Or, to put it more gently, we ought to be self-interested.
Ethical egoism is a theory that advocates egoism (selfishness) as a
moral rule. Means, we have to use selfishness as a moral rule. In
an other way, in morality, selfishness is assumed to be unacceptable
attitude or unethical act.
 Cont…
Even, among the scholars, still there is disagreement about what
constitutes ethical behavior. Since very early in western intellectual
history, the view of point that; humans are not built to look out for
other people’s interest. (Psychological egoism)
Some scholars were even holds that; the proper moral conduct is
consisting of “looking out for number one,” or for oneself. (Ethical
egoism)
But, in morality, selfishness is assumed to be unacceptable attitude.
In ethical egoism, we may focus on the consequences of our actions
because we believe that; those consequences of an action justify our
actions and it may maximize happiness for one self.
 Cont…
In this case, we might not agree with the Italian statesman Niccolo
Machiavelli (1469-1527) that; if the end is to maintain the
political power for one self, ones king or ones political party, then
might use for that propose, such as force, surveillance, or even
deceit/dishonesty/.
Ethical universalism: usually called utilitarianism, takes the
position that; the ultimate end of our action is the greatest general
good (for common good).
• Bentham and John Stuart Mill have assert that; the moral end is
the greatest balance of pleasure over pain.
 2. Psychological Egoism
• Butler's terms, egoism is refers to "self-love" is the only basic
"principle" in human nature.
• “Ego-satisfaction" or satisfying oneself (maximizing personal
happiness) is the final aim of all activity.
• As of psychological egoism -- each of us is always seeking one’s own
greatest good.
 Utilitarianism: “Producing the best consequences”
•An action is best if it produces the greatest happiness for the
greatest numbers.
•The traditional moral principles that guide our actions are:
I.“Let your conscience or ethics be your guide/guidance.”
II.“Do whatever is most loving”
III.“Do to others as you would have them do to you.” Golden rule
•Conscience/Ethics, love, and the Golden Rule are all worthy rules of
thumb to help us through our life.
 Classic Utilitarianism
Is set by ancient Greek philosopher-Epicurus (342–270 BCE),
who stated that “Pleasure or happiness is the goal that nature has
ordained for us; it is also the standard by which we judge
everything good.”
According to classic utilitarianism, the rightness and wrongness
of our action is determined by its pleasure or pain which that
action produces.
 Jeremy Bentham: Quantity over Quality

Bentham articulated two main features of utilitarianism:-

1) The consequentialist principle (or its teleological aspect): states
that; the rightness or wrongness of an act is determined by the
goodness or badness of the results that flow from it.
2)The utility principle (or its hedonic aspect): states that the only
thing that is good in itself is some specific type of state (for
example, pleasure or happiness, welfare).
Hedonistic utilitarianism or utility principle views pleasure as the
sole good and pain as the only evil. Accordingly, the right action
is the only action that brings more pleasure than pain in our
life.
 Cont…
• Hedonic calculus is invented by Jeremy Bentham to measure pleasure
and pain by summing the following seven aspects of pleasure and pain;
(1) Intensity (strength)----Intensity or strength of an action.
(2) Duration (time)----Duration of an action.
(3) Certainty (Importance)----Certainty of an action.
(4) Nearness (immediacy)---Nearness of an action.
(5) Fruitfulness (productivity)--- Fruitfulness or outcome of an action.
(6) Purity (Transparency)---Clearness of an action.
(7) Extent (Amount or Degree)---Amount of an action.
There is only one principle to apply in our every action is;
the principle of maximize pleasure and minimize pain.
 Act and Rule-Utilitarianism
•Act-utilitarianism argues that; an act is right if and only if it
results in as much good as any available alternative.
Drawbacks of this Jeremy Bentham’s Philosophy
One practical problem with act-utilitarianism is that; we cannot do
the necessary calculations to determine which act is the correct one
in each case, for often we must act spontaneously and quickly.
So rules of thumb are of practical importance—for example, “In
general, don’t lie,” and “Generally, keep your promises.”
A second problem with act-utilitarianism is that; it seems to fly in
the face of fundamental intuitions about minimally correct
behavior.
 Rule-utilitarianism
•An act is right if and only if it is required by a rule. Human beings
are rule-following creatures. But, to do the act that maximizes utility,
is too general for most purposes. Often, we don’t have time to decide
on act.
The Strengths of Utilitarianism
• It is a single principle, but an absolute and a proper system with a
potential answer for every situation: because it says; Do what will
promote the most utility! Seems to get to the substance of
morality.
• “Do whatever you can universalize.”
 John Stuart Mill: Quality over Quantity
• John Stuart Mill defined happiness in terms of higher-order pleasures
/satisfactions/ (intellectual, aesthetic or visual /beautifulness) and social
enjoyments, as well as in terms of minimal suffering or pain.
• For John Stuart Mill, there are two types of pleasures;
1) Lower, or Elementary Pleasure: Like Eating, Drinking, Sexuality,
Resting. When these lower pleasures are overdose or increase to more
that expected - they also lead to pain. It is pleasure for short period.
2) Higher Pleasure: High culture, Scientific knowledge, Intellectuality,
and Creativity. Tend to be more long term, continuous, and gradual.
 Criticism Utilitarianism
• Problems with Formulating Utilitarianism: “The greatest
happiness for the greatest number.”

Altruism
• An action is right if the consequences of that action are favorable to
all except the actor. Butler argued that; we have an inherent
psychological capacity to show benevolence or kindness to others
than our self.
• Psychological altruism holds that; all human action is necessarily
other centered and other motivated.
 The difference between Egoistic and Altruistic desires
•Egoistic desire: concerns on the benefit of oneself and not anyone
else.
•Altruistic desire is concerned on the benefit of at least someone
other than oneself.
Altruists reject the theory of psychological egoism and argue
instead of that; humans are instinctively benevolent or have
kindness in nature.
Deontology: What duty asks of us?
•It is diametrically opposite to utilitarianism.
•Referred as “the means justifies the end”.
 Cont…
•The rightness or wrongness of moral action is determined, at least
partly with reference to formal rules of conduct.
•It is an emphasis on the intentions, motives, moral principles or
performance of duty rather than results. It believe or concerned
on performance of One’s own Duty.
•The 17th century German philosopher Samuel Pufendorf, who
classified dozens/lots/many/ of duties under three headings:
A) Duties to God
(1) a theoretical duty to know the existence and nature of God,
 Cont…
(2) a practical duty to both inwardly (secretly) and outwardly
(publically) worship God.
B) Duties to oneself: two sorts:
(1) duties of the soul (developing one's skills and talents) and
(2) duties of the body (not harming our bodies, as we might through
gluttony or drunkenness, and not killing oneself).
C) Duties towards others; Samuel Pufendorf divides duties towards
others in to two;
1) Absolute duties, and
2) Conditional duties.
 Cont…
I) Absolute duties: are of three sorts;
(1) avoid wronging others;
(2) treat people as equals, and
(3) promote the good of others.
II) Conditional duties: involve various types of agreements, the
principal one of which is the duty is to keep one's promises.
 Divine Command Theory
• According to divine command theory, ethical principles are simply the
commands of God.
• They derive their validity from God’s commanding them, and they mean
“commanded by God.”
• Without God, these ethical principles would be no universally valid morality.
• We can analyze the Divine Command Theory into three separate theses:
1) Morality (that is, rightness and wrongness) originates from God.
2) Moral rightness is “willed by God,” and moral wrongness means “being
against the will of God.”
3) Because, morality is based on the divine will, not on independently
existing reasons for action, no further reasons for action are necessary.
 Cont…
• Depending on the implications of Divine Command Theory, we may
list four propositions as follows:-
1. Act “A” is wrong if and only if it is contrary to the command of
God.
2. Act “A” is right (required) if and only if it is commanded by God.
3. Act “A” is morally permissible if and only if it is permitted by the
command of God.
4. If there is no God, then nothing is ethically wrong, required, or
permitted.
In generally, according to Divine Command Theory; morality is not
only originates with/from/God, but; moral rightness is “willed by
God” and moral wrongness is refers to “being against the will of
 Rights Theory
• Rights theory is the 2nd duty-based theory next to deontological
theory.
• Rights and duties are related i.e., the rights of one person implies the
duties of another person.
• John Locke argued that; the laws of nature mandate that; we
should not harm anyone's life, health and liberty.
• Thomas Jefferson recognizes three foundational rights: life, liberty,
and the pursuit for happiness. Jefferson and others rights theorists
maintained that; we gain other more specific rights from these rights
including the rights of property, movement, speech, and religious
expression.
 Cont…
• There are four features which are traditionally associated with
moral rights:-
1st , rights are natural; means, they are not invented or created by
governments.
2nd, rights are universal ; means, they do not changed from country

to country.
3rd, rights are equal ; means rights are the same for all people,
irrespective of gender, race, or handicap (Disability).
4th, rights are inalienable or absolute; means, I can not hand over my
 Kant’s Categorical Imperative
Immanuel Kant is identified with the moral theory known as
deontology. Kant was opposed to the idea that; the outcome of an
action could determine its moral worth, but, the intention of the
person who carries out the action and the possible benefits
Pressure or pain that an action might produce.
A Kant’s duty-based theory is emphasizes on a single principle of
duty; which is refers to; we have moral duties to oneself and the
others, such as developing one’s talents, and keeping our promises
to others.
 Hypothetical imperatives (Theoretical Essentials)
Hypothetical imperatives tell us which means is best to achieve our
ends in our activities. But, the theories do not tell us which ends
we should choose.
In Kant's view, a person cannot decide whether conduct is "right,"
or "moral", through empirical/experimental means, rather a
person can decide conduct as "right," or "moral", through pure
practical reason.
Kant's believed that, unless a person freely and willingly makes a
choice, his/she’s action has no meaning.
Autonomy or self-rule allows us to be self-creating when it comes
to our values and morality.
 Cont…
•Autonomy is one’s own beliefs, personal independence, and self-
governance: acting an action without fear for anyone else.
•On the other hand, heteronomy is acting under the influence of
someone else and allows for an individual to consistently place blame
outside of self.
Kant believed that; each individual is rational and capable of
making free choices; thereby relies on autonomous thinking.
 Principles of Kant’s Categorical Imperative
1) The Principle of Universality
• Kant divides duties in to two;-
a) Perfect duties: perfect duties are blameworthy or responsible if not met and
are the basic requirements for a human being.
• An example of perfect duty is avoidance of suicide (carelessness).
• Suicide is the end of life and Kant believed that "self-love implies, makes the
improvement of life;" if a person commits suicide, improvement of life ceases
or ends.
b) Imperfect duties: are those duties that do not achieve blame/responsibility/,
rather they receive praise if completed.
Examples of imperfect duties are perfecting the ability to write and
produce works.
 Prima Facie Duties or Moral Guidelines
Is developed by William David Ross (1877–1971)—British philosopher.
William David Ross’s prima facie duties are;
Duties of Fidelity: duty to keep promises and the obligation not to lie.
Duties of Reparation: duty to compensate others when we harm them.
Duties of Gratitude: duty to thank those who help us.
Duties of Justice: duty in fair distribution of benefits and burdens for all.
Duties of Beneficence: the duty to improve the conditions or situations of
others.
Duties of self-improvement: is to act so as to promote one’s own good.
Duties of non-maleficence/non-injury/: is the duty not to harm others
physically or psychologically.
 Virtue Ethics
• Virtue Ethics: is about challenging/opposing/ the adequacy of rule-
based theories. E.g., help someone in need.
• A deontologist emphasizes on the fact that; in offering help, I will
be acting in accordance with a moral rule or moral principle
such as “Do unto others as you would be done by”.
• A consequentialist will point out that; the consequences of helping
others will maximize the well-being (success) of others.
• A virtue ethicist will emphasizes on the fact that; providing help
would be charitable or benevolent – charity and benevolence
being virtues.
 Cont…
Therefore, as of Deontologists, helping others in need is acting in
accordance with a moral rule or principle.
For consequentialists, in helping others in need, the consequences
of helping others in need will maximize the well-being of
customer.
• As of Virtue ethicist, providing help in need would be charitable
or benevolent – charity and benevolence being virtues.
 Aristotle’s Ethics (Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics) (384-322 B.C.)
He first wrote a detailed discussion of virtue morality in the
Nichomachean Ethics.
Virtue is refers to asset, feature, benefit, quality, advantage, plus.
Aristotle understood ‘Virtues’ as strength.
In virtue ethics, the key questions which virtue ethical systems ask
were include the following:
1) What sort of person do I want to be?
2) What virtues are characteristic of the person I want to be?
3) What actions will cultivate the virtues I want to possess?
4) What actions will be characteristic of the sort of person I want to be?
 Cont…
• Good is that which all things aim. Something is good, if it performs
its proper function.
A.The good of human beings cannot be answered with the exact of
a mathematical problem since mathematics starts with general
principles and argues to conclusions.
B. Aristotle distinguishes between happiness and moral virtue:
accordingly,
o Moral virtue is not the end of life for it can go with inactivity,
misery, and unhappiness.
o While Happiness is the end of life, that to which all aims.
 Non-Normative Ethics/Meta-ethics

Question: What is Meta-ethics?

• Meta ethics is not about what people ought to do. It is about what
the peoples are doing when they talk about what they ought to do.
Meta-ethics tries to answer question, such as:
• What does “good,” “right,” or “justice” mean?
• What makes something good or right?
• Is moral realism true?
• Is morality is irreducible/complex, cognitive/reasoning, or
overriding/dominant?
• Do intrinsic values exist?
 Cont…
Act-utilitarianism (one ought to give to famine relief OR aid, because that
particular action, of those possible, contributes most to the greater happiness
of the greatest number).
Act-utilitarianism= is concerned with greater happiness of the greatest
number.
Rule-utilitarianism (one ought/must to give to famine relief because giving
to famine relief is prescribed OR approved by a rule the general observance of
which contributes most to the greater happiness of the greatest number).
Kantianism (one ought to or must give to famine relief, because universal
refusal OR rejection to give to famine relief would generate some kind of
inconsistency OR contradiction OR conflict).
 Cont…
• Meta-ethics is concerned with questions about the following:
(a)Meaning: what is the semantic function of moral discourse? Is
the function of moral discourse is to state facts, or does it have
some other non-fact-stating role?
(b) Metaphysics: do moral facts (or properties) exist? If so, what are
they like? Are they identical to some other type of fact (property)?
(c) Epistemology and justification: is there such a thing as moral
knowledge? How can we know whether our moral judgements
are true or false? How can we ever justify?
 Cont…
(d) Phenomenology: how are moral qualities represented in the
experience of an agent making a moral judgement? Do they
appear to be 'out there' in the world?
(e) Moral psychology: what can we say about the motivational state
of someone making a moral judgment?
(f) Objectivity: can moral judgments really be correct or incorrect?
Some meta-ethical theories (moral realism, non-cognitivism, error-
theory and moral anti-realism).
 Cognitivism and Non-Cognitivism
Consider a particular moral judgment, such as the judgment
that murder is wrong. What sort of psychological state does this
express?
•Cognitivists, think that a moral judgment such as this expresses a
belief/faith.
•Beliefs can be true or false: they are truth-apt, or appropriate to be
assessed in terms of truth and falsity.
•So they think that moral judgments are capable of being true or
false.
 Cont…
• On the other hand, non-cognitivists think that moral judgements
express non-cognitive states such as emotions or desires.
• Desires and emotions are not truth-apt. So moral judgements are
not capable of being true or false. (Note that, although it may be true
that I have a desire for a pint of beer and false that I have a desire
to see Ethiopia win the World Cup, this does not imply that desires
themselves can be true or false.)
 Strong Cognitivism: Naturalism

•Can be either naturalist or non-naturalist.

•According to a naturalist, a moral judgement is rendered or
balanced to true or false by a natural state of affairs, and it is this
natural state of affairs to which a true moral judgement affords us
access.
• But what is a natural state of affairs? G. E. Moore's
characterization: “By 'nature', then, I do mean and have meant
that which is the subject matter of the natural sciences and also
of psychology.”
 Strong Cogntivism: Non-Natural
• Think that moral properties are not identical to or reducible to
natural properties. They are irreducible/complicated or complex.
• There are two types of strong cognitivist non-naturalism:
1st Moore's ethical non-naturalism: the property of moral
goodness is non-natural, simple, and unanalyzable; and
2nd Contemporary version of non-naturalism of John McDowell
and David Wiggins.
Again, both types of non-naturalist are moral realists: (they really
on moral facts and moral properties- which is constitutively
independent of human opinion.
Strong cognitivism without moral realism: Mackie's 'error-theory
• Mackie argued that; although moral judgements are apt to be true
or false, and that moral judgements, if true, would afford us
cognitive access to moral facts, moral judgements are in fact always
false.
• He concludes that; there are no moral properties or moral facts.
• So that (positive, atomic) moral judgements are uniformly false our
moral thinking involves us in a radical error. Because Mackie denies
that there are moral facts or properties, he is not a moral realist, but a
moral antirealist.
 Non-Cognitivism (Reading Assignment)
• Non-cognitivists deny that moral judgements are even apt to be true
or false. Non-cognitivists thus disagree with both weak and strong
cognitivism. We shall look at a number of arguments which the
non-cognitivist uses against cognitivism. An example of such an
argument is the argument from moral psychology. Suppose that
moral judgements can express beliefs, as the cognitivist claims.
• Being motivated to do something or to pursue a course of action is
always a matter of having a belief and a desire. For example, I am
motivated to reach for the fridge because I believe that it contains
water and I have a desire for water.
 Cont…
• So moral judgements are not truth-apt and cannot express beliefs,
what do they express?
• three versions of non-cognitivism which give different answers to
this question: according to the ff scholars our moral judgements
express:
• J. Ayer's emotivism (1936): our emotions, or sentiments of approval
or disapproval;
• Simon Blackburn's quasi-realism (1984): our dispositions to form
sentiments of approval or disapproval; and
• Allan Gibbard's norm-expressivism (1990): our moral judgements
express our acceptance of norms.
 Internalism and Externalism, Humeanism and Anti- Humeanism

• Internalism: as moral psychology claim that; there is an internal

and necessary connection between sincerely making a moral
judgement and being motivated to act in the manner prescribed by
that judgement.
• It says that; there is an internal or conceptual connection between
moral judgement and motivation.
• Some cognitivist philosophers respond to the argument from moral
psychology by denying internalism.
• Externalist deny moral psychcology and see the connection between
judgement and motivation is only external and contingent.
 Cont…
• Humean theory of motivation: claim that motivation always
involves the presence of both beliefs and desires –Hume’s work
• Anti-Humean theory of motivation: beliefs themselves can be
intrinsically motivating. - McDowell and Wiggins