Moral and Citizenship Education 2
Moral and Citizenship Education 2
APPROACHES TO ETHICS
1. Ethical Egoism
This theory is called ethical egoism simply, because, it is an ethical
theory which deals about how we ought to behave in all
situations/actions/ by being selfish.
The theory implies that; when we act an action, always we ought to
be selfish. Or, to put it more gently, we ought to be self-interested.
Ethical egoism is a theory that advocates egoism (selfishness) as a
moral rule. Means, we have to use selfishness as a moral rule. In
an other way, in morality, selfishness is assumed to be unacceptable
attitude or unethical act.
Cont…
Even, among the scholars, still there is disagreement about what
constitutes ethical behavior. Since very early in western intellectual
history, the view of point that; humans are not built to look out for
other people’s interest. (Psychological egoism)
Some scholars were even holds that; the proper moral conduct is
consisting of “looking out for number one,” or for oneself. (Ethical
egoism)
But, in morality, selfishness is assumed to be unacceptable attitude.
In ethical egoism, we may focus on the consequences of our actions
because we believe that; those consequences of an action justify our
actions and it may maximize happiness for one self.
Cont…
In this case, we might not agree with the Italian statesman Niccolo
Machiavelli (1469-1527) that; if the end is to maintain the
political power for one self, ones king or ones political party, then
might use for that propose, such as force, surveillance, or even
deceit/dishonesty/.
Ethical universalism: usually called utilitarianism, takes the
position that; the ultimate end of our action is the greatest general
good (for common good).
• Bentham and John Stuart Mill have assert that; the moral end is
the greatest balance of pleasure over pain.
2. Psychological Egoism
• Butler's terms, egoism is refers to "self-love" is the only basic
"principle" in human nature.
• “Ego-satisfaction" or satisfying oneself (maximizing personal
happiness) is the final aim of all activity.
• As of psychological egoism -- each of us is always seeking one’s own
greatest good.
Utilitarianism: “Producing the best consequences”
•An action is best if it produces the greatest happiness for the
greatest numbers.
•The traditional moral principles that guide our actions are:
I.“Let your conscience or ethics be your guide/guidance.”
II.“Do whatever is most loving”
III.“Do to others as you would have them do to you.” Golden rule
•Conscience/Ethics, love, and the Golden Rule are all worthy rules of
thumb to help us through our life.
Classic Utilitarianism
Is set by ancient Greek philosopher-Epicurus (342–270 BCE),
who stated that “Pleasure or happiness is the goal that nature has
ordained for us; it is also the standard by which we judge
everything good.”
According to classic utilitarianism, the rightness and wrongness
of our action is determined by its pleasure or pain which that
action produces.
Jeremy Bentham: Quantity over Quality
Altruism
• An action is right if the consequences of that action are favorable to
all except the actor. Butler argued that; we have an inherent
psychological capacity to show benevolence or kindness to others
than our self.
• Psychological altruism holds that; all human action is necessarily
other centered and other motivated.
The difference between Egoistic and Altruistic desires
•Egoistic desire: concerns on the benefit of oneself and not anyone
else.
•Altruistic desire is concerned on the benefit of at least someone
other than oneself.
Altruists reject the theory of psychological egoism and argue
instead of that; humans are instinctively benevolent or have
kindness in nature.
Deontology: What duty asks of us?
•It is diametrically opposite to utilitarianism.
•Referred as “the means justifies the end”.
Cont…
•The rightness or wrongness of moral action is determined, at least
partly with reference to formal rules of conduct.
•It is an emphasis on the intentions, motives, moral principles or
performance of duty rather than results. It believe or concerned
on performance of One’s own Duty.
•The 17th century German philosopher Samuel Pufendorf, who
classified dozens/lots/many/ of duties under three headings:
A) Duties to God
(1) a theoretical duty to know the existence and nature of God,
Cont…
(2) a practical duty to both inwardly (secretly) and outwardly
(publically) worship God.
B) Duties to oneself: two sorts:
(1) duties of the soul (developing one's skills and talents) and
(2) duties of the body (not harming our bodies, as we might through
gluttony or drunkenness, and not killing oneself).
C) Duties towards others; Samuel Pufendorf divides duties towards
others in to two;
1) Absolute duties, and
2) Conditional duties.
Cont…
I) Absolute duties: are of three sorts;
(1) avoid wronging others;
(2) treat people as equals, and
(3) promote the good of others.
II) Conditional duties: involve various types of agreements, the
principal one of which is the duty is to keep one's promises.
Divine Command Theory
• According to divine command theory, ethical principles are simply the
commands of God.
• They derive their validity from God’s commanding them, and they mean
“commanded by God.”
• Without God, these ethical principles would be no universally valid morality.
• We can analyze the Divine Command Theory into three separate theses:
1) Morality (that is, rightness and wrongness) originates from God.
2) Moral rightness is “willed by God,” and moral wrongness means “being
against the will of God.”
3) Because, morality is based on the divine will, not on independently
existing reasons for action, no further reasons for action are necessary.
Cont…
• Depending on the implications of Divine Command Theory, we may
list four propositions as follows:-
1. Act “A” is wrong if and only if it is contrary to the command of
God.
2. Act “A” is right (required) if and only if it is commanded by God.
3. Act “A” is morally permissible if and only if it is permitted by the
command of God.
4. If there is no God, then nothing is ethically wrong, required, or
permitted.
In generally, according to Divine Command Theory; morality is not
only originates with/from/God, but; moral rightness is “willed by
God” and moral wrongness is refers to “being against the will of
Rights Theory
• Rights theory is the 2nd duty-based theory next to deontological
theory.
• Rights and duties are related i.e., the rights of one person implies the
duties of another person.
• John Locke argued that; the laws of nature mandate that; we
should not harm anyone's life, health and liberty.
• Thomas Jefferson recognizes three foundational rights: life, liberty,
and the pursuit for happiness. Jefferson and others rights theorists
maintained that; we gain other more specific rights from these rights
including the rights of property, movement, speech, and religious
expression.
Cont…
• There are four features which are traditionally associated with
moral rights:-
1st , rights are natural; means, they are not invented or created by
governments.
2nd, rights are universal ; means, they do not changed from country
to country.
3rd, rights are equal ; means rights are the same for all people,
irrespective of gender, race, or handicap (Disability).
4th, rights are inalienable or absolute; means, I can not hand over my
Kant’s Categorical Imperative
Immanuel Kant is identified with the moral theory known as
deontology. Kant was opposed to the idea that; the outcome of an
action could determine its moral worth, but, the intention of the
person who carries out the action and the possible benefits
Pressure or pain that an action might produce.
A Kant’s duty-based theory is emphasizes on a single principle of
duty; which is refers to; we have moral duties to oneself and the
others, such as developing one’s talents, and keeping our promises
to others.
Hypothetical imperatives (Theoretical Essentials)
Hypothetical imperatives tell us which means is best to achieve our
ends in our activities. But, the theories do not tell us which ends
we should choose.
In Kant's view, a person cannot decide whether conduct is "right,"
or "moral", through empirical/experimental means, rather a
person can decide conduct as "right," or "moral", through pure
practical reason.
Kant's believed that, unless a person freely and willingly makes a
choice, his/she’s action has no meaning.
Autonomy or self-rule allows us to be self-creating when it comes
to our values and morality.
Cont…
•Autonomy is one’s own beliefs, personal independence, and self-
governance: acting an action without fear for anyone else.
•On the other hand, heteronomy is acting under the influence of
someone else and allows for an individual to consistently place blame
outside of self.
Kant believed that; each individual is rational and capable of
making free choices; thereby relies on autonomous thinking.
Principles of Kant’s Categorical Imperative
1) The Principle of Universality
• Kant divides duties in to two;-
a) Perfect duties: perfect duties are blameworthy or responsible if not met and
are the basic requirements for a human being.
• An example of perfect duty is avoidance of suicide (carelessness).
• Suicide is the end of life and Kant believed that "self-love implies, makes the
improvement of life;" if a person commits suicide, improvement of life ceases
or ends.
b) Imperfect duties: are those duties that do not achieve blame/responsibility/,
rather they receive praise if completed.
Examples of imperfect duties are perfecting the ability to write and
produce works.
Prima Facie Duties or Moral Guidelines
Is developed by William David Ross (1877–1971)—British philosopher.
William David Ross’s prima facie duties are;
Duties of Fidelity: duty to keep promises and the obligation not to lie.
Duties of Reparation: duty to compensate others when we harm them.
Duties of Gratitude: duty to thank those who help us.
Duties of Justice: duty in fair distribution of benefits and burdens for all.
Duties of Beneficence: the duty to improve the conditions or situations of
others.
Duties of self-improvement: is to act so as to promote one’s own good.
Duties of non-maleficence/non-injury/: is the duty not to harm others
physically or psychologically.
Virtue Ethics
• Virtue Ethics: is about challenging/opposing/ the adequacy of rule-
based theories. E.g., help someone in need.
• A deontologist emphasizes on the fact that; in offering help, I will
be acting in accordance with a moral rule or moral principle
such as “Do unto others as you would be done by”.
• A consequentialist will point out that; the consequences of helping
others will maximize the well-being (success) of others.
• A virtue ethicist will emphasizes on the fact that; providing help
would be charitable or benevolent – charity and benevolence
being virtues.
Cont…
Therefore, as of Deontologists, helping others in need is acting in
accordance with a moral rule or principle.
For consequentialists, in helping others in need, the consequences
of helping others in need will maximize the well-being of
customer.
• As of Virtue ethicist, providing help in need would be charitable
or benevolent – charity and benevolence being virtues.
Aristotle’s Ethics (Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics) (384-322 B.C.)
He first wrote a detailed discussion of virtue morality in the
Nichomachean Ethics.
Virtue is refers to asset, feature, benefit, quality, advantage, plus.
Aristotle understood ‘Virtues’ as strength.
In virtue ethics, the key questions which virtue ethical systems ask
were include the following:
1) What sort of person do I want to be?
2) What virtues are characteristic of the person I want to be?
3) What actions will cultivate the virtues I want to possess?
4) What actions will be characteristic of the sort of person I want to be?
Cont…
• Good is that which all things aim. Something is good, if it performs
its proper function.
A.The good of human beings cannot be answered with the exact of
a mathematical problem since mathematics starts with general
principles and argues to conclusions.
B. Aristotle distinguishes between happiness and moral virtue:
accordingly,
o Moral virtue is not the end of life for it can go with inactivity,
misery, and unhappiness.
o While Happiness is the end of life, that to which all aims.
Non-Normative Ethics/Meta-ethics