Professional Documents
Culture Documents
RF Basics
RF Basics
Presented by
Sarika Shrivastava
Pavana Vishnu Kanth K
Contents Overview
• RF Basics
• Transmission Line Basics
• Types Of Transmission Lines
• S- Parameters
• Smith Chart
• RF Components
RF BASICS
Microwaves ????
– f = 300 MHz - 300 GHz
– ⅄=1m - 1 mm
Why Microwaves ???
• Small Antennas
• Antenna gain is proportional to the electrical size of the antenna. At HFs, more antenna gain is
therefore possible for a given physical antenna size.
• Microwave signals travel by line of sight and are not bent by the ionosphere as are LF signals.
Satellite and terrestrial communication links with very high capacities are thus possible, with
frequency reuse at minimally distant locations.
• The effective reflection area RCS of a radar target is usually proportional to the target's electrical
size.
• Various molecular, atomic, and nuclear resonances occur at microwave frequencies, creating a
variety of unique applications in the areas of basic science, remote sensing, medical diagnostics and
treatment, and heating methods.
• Applications: Microwave oven, Radar, Satellite comm., direct broadcast satellite (DBS) television,
personal communication systems (PCSs) etc.
Analysis of differences between Low and High Frequency
• Thus a transmission line is a distributed-parameter network, where voltages and currents can
vary in magnitude and phase over its length.
Electrical length (in ) = Physical length/Wavelength
Phase delay = (2 or 360) x Physical length/Wavelength
f =10 kHz, = c/f = 3 x 108/ 10 x 103 = 3000 m
Electrical length =1 cm/3000 m = 3.3 x 10 -6
Phase delay = 0.0012
f =10 GHz, = 3 x 108/ 10 x 109 = 3 cm
Electrical length = 0.33
Phase delay = 118.8
Electrically long - The phase of a voltage or current changes significantly over the
physical extent of the device
Decibel (dB)
• operates on a unitless parameter
• example ratios and coefficients
• logarithmic expression of the ratio between the power, voltage, or current of two signals.
Examples
+ 3 dB two times bigger
+10 dB ten times bigger
-3 dB one half
-10 dB one tenth
0dB 1
−∞ dB 0
7dB 5
dBw P(dBw)=10log10(Pwatts/1W)
dBm P(dBm)=10log10(Pwatts/1mW)
dBc P(dBc)=10log10(Pwatts/Pc)
Maxwell's Equation
Symbols Used
I. Gauss' law for electricity
E= ρ = charge i =
Electric fie density electric cu
ld rrent
B= ε0 = J = current
Magnetic permittivit density
field y
II. Gauss' law for magnetism D=
Electric μ0 = c = speed
displacem permeabil of light
ent ity
III. Faraday's law of induction
H= M= P=
Magnetic Magnetiza Polarizatio
IV. Ampere's law field stren tion n
gth
Transmission - Line Basics
f
General Model of a transmission line
+++++++
V
-------
R L R L R L
G C G C G C
R j L
Characteristic Impedance Z0
G j C
Propagation Constant R jL G jC j
a = attenuation constant = rate of exponential attenuation
b = phase constant = amount of phase shift per unit length
Phase Velocity p
In general, a and b are frequency dependent.
The Concept of Impedance
Wave impedance
Z w Et / H t 1/ Yw
• a characteristic of the particular type of wave.
• TEM, TM and TE waves each have different wave impedances
• may depend on
– the type of the line or guide,
– the material
– the operating frequency.
• η = Zw for plane waves.
Characteristic impedance
Z 0 1/ Y0 L / C
• the ratio of V/I for a traveling wave on a transmission line.
Propagation Delay
– Transit Time
– Delay Line
Figure 13-11: The effect of the time delay of a transmission line on signals. (a) Sine wave delay
causes a lagging phase shift. (b) Pulse delay.
Attenuation
– Attenuation
• amount of power lost per 100 ft of cable (in dB) at 100 MHz.
• Attenuation α cable length
• Attenuation α freq
• A transmission line is a LPF whose cutoff frequency depends on distributed inductance and
capacitance along the line and on length.
• It is important to use larger, low-loss cables for longer runs despite cost and handling
inconvenience.
• A gain antenna can be used to offset cable loss.
• Velocity Factor VF = Vp/Vc
– Dispersion
• Vgvs freq.
• Ex. waveguide and microstrip.
• affects transmission line impedance as well as group velocity.
• The dispersion of microstrip is just a few % over a moderate freq band, and can often be ignored.
• Two things to remember about dispersion:
• for small bandwidths, it is usually not a problem.
Lossless Line Equivalent Circuit
L L L
R and G are negligible, at low
C
frequencies -
C C
no attenuation &
no dispersion
(Microstrip)
Z0,Zn,,length
v , length
0
L
Characteristic Impedance Z0
C
1
Propagation Velocity v
LC
1 1 c0 30cm / ns
v
LC rr r
r 0 Dielectric Permittivity
0 8.854 x10 14 F cm Permittivity of free space
1 1
v
LC
• Input impedance of a transmission line at a distance L from the load impedance ZL with
a characteristic Zo is
where β is called phase constant or wavelength constant and is defined by the equation
β = 2p/l
Ri =ZL
Preflected
Pincident Ra ≠ ZL
• Voltage Reflection Coefficient.
Γ = Vr/Vi
where Vr = incident voltage, Vi = reflected voltage
– Shorted and open λ/4 lines act like LC tuned or resonant circuits at the ref. freq.
– S.C. line
• L < λ/4 (@fo) - the shorted line looks like an inductor to the generator.
• λ/4 < L < λ/2 , it looks like a capacitor to the generator.
• These conditions repeat with multiple λ/4 or λ/2 of shorted line.
– O.C. line
• L=λ/4 line looks like a series resonant circuit to the generator
• L=λ/2 line looks like a parallel resonant circuit, just the opposite of a shorted
line.
• L < λ/4 (@fo) - the generator sees a capacitance.
• λ/4 < L < λ/2 - the generator sees an inductance.
• These conditions repeat with multiple λ/4 or λ/2 of shorted line.
Figure 13-25: Summary of impedance and reactance variations of shorted and open lines for
lengths up to one wavelength.
Types Of Transmission Lines
Types of Transmission Lines
1. Two wire line
2. Coaxial cable
3. Multi-dielectric coax
4. Rectax
5. Waveguide - is technically NOT a transmission line, but it serves the same purpose. Types of
waveguides:
Rectangular
Circular
Finline
Parallel Plate
Dielectric-loaded
Double-ridged
Substrate integrated
– Unbalanced Line
• one conductor is connected to ground.
• Ex. Coaxial cables, shielded twisted-pair
• may pick up signals and cross talk and can
even radiate energy
r
Z0, u, length
, length v, Z R
0
e
r
b
Z0 ln
2a 2 a
- characteristic impedance
2b
• TEM mode
– Coax
– Stripline
– Parallel plate waveguide
• Transmission lines are typically operated at frequencies below the cutoff frequencies of TE
and TM modes so that only the TEM mode exists.
• Along the length of a normal transmission line, both electric and magnetic fields
are perpendicular (transverse) to the direction of wave travel. This is known as the
principal mode, or TEM (Transverse Electric and Magnetic) mode.
• dominant mode of wave propagation
• the cross-sectional dimensions of the transmission line are small compared to the
wavelength of the signal. (Figure below)
• Stripline -1.54 ns (1ns * √εR per foot rule, multiplied by the square-root of the dielectric
constant.
• CPW - 1.22 ns
• εeff = (1+ εR )/2,
• the average of free space and the substrate dielectric constant, or 1.65 in this case.
• Neither CPW or stripline is suffers from dispersion.
• Distributed elements formed on microstrip will have less bandwidth than comparable
elements formed in stripline.
CPW
Microstrip
Stripline.
Group Delay of three 50Ω transmission lines, each one foot long, realized on Rogers 5880 Duroid (Er=2.3)
Criteria for TEM propagation in transmission lines
3. The conductors must have infinite conductivity. The IR drop across the conductor
bends the E-field ever so slightly going forward.
5. The cross-section of the transmission line must remain constant (excludes certain
types of slow-wave structures)
Conditions (3) and (4) make it impossible to create pure TEM unless you have access
to superconductors and a zero-gravity lab so you don't have to support the conductors.
What is meant by the cutoff frequency fc?
• The desirable TEM mode is allowed to propagate at all frequencies, but at
frequencies above fc an ugly higher-order mode is also allowed to propagate. This
mode will be excited at small imperfections, bends, etc., and it will propagate with
a different phase velocity and interfere with the TEM mode.
• To be sure that only one mode propagates, thus keeping the signal clean, you will
need to stay below fc. To obtain good performance at higher frequencies, smaller
diameter cables are required to stay below the cutoff frequency.
• In order to minimize losses due to skin depth, you want to use the BIGGEST coax
cable you can that won't support a TE11 mode (a higher-order mode that will screw
up your loss and VSWR and has a different propagation velocity than the TEM
mode).
• The criteria for cutoff is that the circumference at the midpoint inside the dielectric
must be less than a wavelength. Note: this is an APPROXIMATION of a
transcendental equation which must be solved numerically.
• Coaxial cable is the solution to many problems, from wide bandwidth, to low loss
and high isolation.
Microstrip
Quasi-TEM because the static (DC, or zero freq) fields are TEM
Quasi-TEM Assumption
• The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular to the propagation
velocity in the transverse planes.
• Variants -
embedded
microstrip and
coated microstrip,
both of which add
some dielectric
above the
microstrip
conductor.
E
H
y
z
x
Microstrip - non TEM behavior
• Microstrip is the type of microwave circuit interconnection. This waveguide will
support the “quasi- TEM” mode, which like regular TEM modes has no non-zero
cutoff frequency.
• However, if the frequency is large enough, other modes will begin to propogate on
a microstrip. This is usually not a desirable situation
120 h 1
Z0
r W 1 1.735 r0.0724 W/h
0.836
t r
W
- characteristic impedance
Z0
r =2
4
6
100 8
10
20
10
W/h
0.1 1 10
Transmission Line Parameters
• Guided wavelength
– ⅄g= ⅄o / √εr
• Propagation constant
– β=2Π/ ⅄g
• Phase velocity
• Vp=ω/β
• Electrical length
– Θ=βL
• Losses
– Conductor loss
– Dielectric loss
– Radiation loss
• Dispersion
– εre(f)
– Zo(f)
• Surface Waves and higher-order modes
– Coupling between the quasi-TEM mode and surface wave mode
become significant when the frequency is above fs
– Cutoff frequency fc of first higher-order modes in a microstrip
– The operating frequency of a microstrip line < Min (fs, fc)
SKIN - EFFECT
magnetic field H
At HFs, the current tends to flow only in the
Primary
conductor surface; the effective conductor cross current I increasing
section decreases and the conductor resistance through the
skin effect
increases.
primary current
The depth of penetration illustrates the skin effect. It ↓ses through
is defined as the thickness of a thin surface layer the skin effect
l cable length,
r conductor radius,
µ0 magnetic field constant,
µr relative permeability,
σ conductivity and
ω angular frequency (ω=2πf).
Dispersion in microstrip
The so-called "quasi-static" solution of microstrip Keff is done at zero frequency (DC), and
Keff is greatly reduced from the ER of the substrate (for example, on GaAs with ER 12.9,
Keff at DC might be around 8. But at infinite frequency, (think gamma rays instead of
microwaves) all of the E-fields will be in the substrate, and Keff will be 12.9. Note that
infinite frequency is not possible, spurious modes will propagate well before the substrate
becomes even a quarter-wavelength tall (at which point it won't work at all).
As more field lines enter the substrate at higher frequency, the wave slows down (more
group delay), and the characteristic impedance goes up slightly. But you will never come
close to Keff=ER in practical applications.
Another problem with microstrip is that the group velocity of the even and odd modes is
different. This is what causes filter skirts to be different above and below the passband of
a bandpass filter.
Discontinuities And Components
– Full-Wave EM Simulator
Steps in width
Open ends
The fields do not stop abruptly but extend slightly further due to the effect of the
fringing field.
Gaps
Bends
Rectangular waveguide
discontinuities.
47
Some common
microstrip
discontinuities. (a)
Open-ended microstrip.
(b) Gap in microstrip.
(c) Change in width.
(d) T-junction. (e)
Coax-to-microstrip
junction.
48
Stripline
Centred Stripline
Variants
Dual Stripline
εeff
Stripline - TEM behavior
Z0, Ohm
r r = 2
100
t 4
6
W 10
20
30 b 10
Z0
r We 0.441b
- characteristic impedance 1 W/b
0.1 1 10
W
0 for 0.35b
We W b • provides lower characteristic
2
b b
0.35 W W impedance
for 0.35b .
b b
Advantages of stripline
• Stripline (TEM) vs microstrip (quasi-TEM)
• Stripline filters and couplers always offer better bandwidth than their
counterparts in microstrip, and the rolloff of stripline BPFs can be
quite symmetric (unlike microstrip).
more expensive
strip widths - are much narrower for a given impedance and board
thickness. Because of the second groundplane,
Finite
ideal H = infinite
Advantages of CPW
• Circuit Isolation : ,you can get great isolation using CPW, because there are always RF
grounds between traces.
• The advantage of having a thick substrate is realized when you fabricate CPW MMICs. The
expense of backside processing (thinning, via etch, backside plating) is eliminated. Many
companies that are currently developing GaN devices are employing CPW so they can
concentrate on device technology and not have to figure out how to etch vias in silicon
carbide or sapphire.
• The ground inductance for shunt elements is quite low for CPW, compared to microstrip
applications. This is because the RF ground is "right there", and you don't have to drill a via
hole to connect to it (vias add inductance).
• Circuit Size : If you want to make compact circuits using narrow transmission lines, you must
trade off RF loss. CPW circuits can be lossier than comparable microstrip circuits, if you need
a compact layout.
• The advantages of coplanar waveguide are that active devices can be mounted on top of the
circuit, like on microstrip. More importantly, it can provide extremely high frequency
response (100 GHz or more) since connecting to CPW does not entail any parasitic
discontinuities in the ground plane.
Disadvantages of CPW
• Ground straps are always needed to tie the two grounds together in
CPW, or weird things can happen. These are especially important
around any discontinuity, such as a tee junction.
h r
h r
W
W s W
Characteristic impedance
Z0, Ohm
110
• provide higher characteristic
impedance
90
30 W/h
0.0 0.1 1
2
Slotline
• similar to slotline
• bounded within a rectangular waveguide - It solves the problem of how to install components
such as diodes into rectangular waveguide.
• close relative of double-ridged waveguide.
• 30 GHz to 110 GHz.
• Basically it consists of a partially metalized dielectric substrate shielded by a rectangular metal
enclosure. The metallization can be in the form of fins and/or isolated strip conductors of
arbitrary widths placed in symmetric or antisymmetric positions on the substrate.
• Types of finline : unilateral finline (fins on only one side of the substrate with slot in the centre
or off-centered) symmetrical and asymmetrical, bilateral finline (fins located on both sides of
substrate, broadside coupled double-dielectric finlines employing two symmetrically
positioned substrates with an intervening air gap between them), asymmetric broad side
coupled double dielectric finline, edge coupled finline, antipodal finline and insulated finline.
Antipodal finline is useful to act as transitions between two kinds of planar transmission lines.
• The useful applications are filters, hybrid rings, power dividers, phase shifters, mixers and
transitions.
• Finline got its name because it resembles a fin of a fish. This is the only structure having
planar transmission line in E-plane inserted in a waveguide. These kind of quasi-planar
structures combine the advantageous features of planar technology in terms of amenability to
circuit integration and mass production, and of waveguide technology in terms of low loss.
WAVEGUIDES
Special form of transmission line
Tube wall - distributed inductance
Empty space between the tube walls - distributed capacitance.
Used at microwave freq`s - typically to interconnect tx and rx with antennas.
No concerns with proper conductor-to-conductor spacing
No concerns of the consistency of the dielectric material (only one dielectric - air)
“Director” of the energy rather than as a signal conductor.
Propagation of electrical energy of different nature than in a two-conductor
transmission line.
reduces copper (I²R) losses
At microwave frequencies, the current-carrying area of the inner conductor is restricted to a very
small layer at the surface of the conductor by an action called skin effect. Skin effect tends to
increase the effective resistance of the conductor.
The energy is then conducted within the hollow waveguide instead of along the
two-wire transmission line.
If the frequency of a signal is decreased so much that two quarter-wavelengths
are longer than the wide dimension of a waveguide, energy will no longer pass
through the waveguide. This is the lower frequency limit, or cut-off frequency, of
a given waveguide.
The widest dimension of a waveguide is called the „a” dimension and
determines the range of operating frequencies.
The narrowest dimension determines the power-handling capability of the
waveguide and is called the „b” dimension.
The cut-off wavelength of a rectangular waveguide can be calculated by:
• The maximum +ive and -ive voltage crests of the wave travel down the center of
the waveguide and the voltage decreases to zero along the waveguide side walls.
When high power waveguide systems fail, the electrical arcs are usually between
the top and bottom walls of the waveguide in the center where the voltage is
greatest.
- much more dispersive than even microstrip, especially near the lower cutoff freq.
• Normal operating mode is the TEM or quasi-TEM Operating modes are TE or TM modes (cannot
mode (can support TE and TM modes but these support a TEM mode).
modes are typically undesirable).
• No cutoff frequency for the TEM mode. Must operate the waveguide at a frequency above the
Transmission lines can transmit signals from DC up respective TE or TM mode cutoff frequency for that
to high frequency. mode to propagate.
• Significant signal attenuation at high frequencies Lower signal attenuation at high frequencies than
due to conductor and dielectric losses. transmission lines.
• Small cross-section transmission lines (like coaxial Metal waveguides can transmit high power levels.
cables) can only transmit low power levels due to the The fields of the propagating wave are spread more
relatively high fields concentrated at specific uniformly over a larger cross-sectional area than the
locations within the device (field levels are limited small cross-section transmission line.
by dielectric breakdown).
• Large cross-section transmission lines (like power Large cross-section (low frequency) waveguides are
transmission lines) can transmit high power levels. impractical due to large size and high cost.
Advantages and disadvantages of waveguides
I1 I2
+ +
Input Output
V1
_ Port The Network Port
V2
_
* notes
Reciprocal and Lossless Networks
Impedance
V1 = z11I1 + z12I2 V2 = b11V1 - b12I1
Z parameters
V2 = z21I1 + z22I2 I2 = b21V1 – b22I1
V
z 2 z21 is a transfer impedance. It is the ratio of the
21 I I 0
1 2 voltage at port 2 to the current at port 1 when
port 2 is open.
V
z 2 z22 is the impedance seen looking into port 2
22 I I 0
2 1 when port 1 is open.
* notes
Two Port Networks
Y parameters:
I
y 2 y21 is a transfer impedance. It is the ratio of the
21 V V 0
1 2 current at port 2 to the voltage at port 1 when
port 2 is shorted.
I
y 2 y22 is the admittance seen looking into port 2
22 V V 0
2 1 when port 1 is shorted.
* notes
Two Port Networks
Transmission parameters (A,B,C,D):
V1 A B V 2
I I
1 C D 2
V1 V1
A B
V2 I2 = 0 I2 V2 = 0
I1 I1
C D
V2 I2 = 0 I2 V2 = 0
Two Port Networks
Hybrid Parameters: The equations for the hybrid parameters are:
V1 V1
h11 h12
I1 V2 = 0 V2 I1 = 0
I2 I2
h21 h22
I1 V2 = 0 V2 I1 = 0
* notes
Two Port Networks
Hybrid Parameters: The following is a popular model used to represent
a particular variety of transistors.
I1 K1 I2
+ + +
V1 K 2V 2 K4 V2
_ K 3V 1
_ _
V1 AI 1 BV2
V2
I 2 CI 1
D
* notes
Two Port Networks
Hybrid Parameters: V1 AI 1 BV2
V2
I 2 CI 1
D
V1 V1
h11 = K1
h12 = K2
I1 V2 = 0 V2 I1 = 0
I2
h21 = K3 I2 1
I1 V2 = 0
h22 = K
4
V2 I1 = 0
Going From Y to Z Parameters
I Y V V Z I
1
From above; V Y I Z I
Therefore
y y
22 12
where
z z
Y
1
Y Y det Y
Z Y
z
11
z
12
y y
21 22 21 11
Y Y
Two Port Parameter Conversions:
Interconnection Of Two Port Networks
Three ways that two ports are interconnected:
ya Y parameters
* Parallel
yb
y ya yb
Z parameters
z za zb
za
* Series
zb
ABCD parameters
S12 = b1 / a2
S21 = b2 / a1
S22 = b2 / a2
A transmission line is an
example of a symmetrical
2-port network.
• the network
• the characteristic impedances of
the source and load used to
measure it
• the frequency measured at.
Larger networks:
Smith Chart
Real Impedance Impedance Axis
Axis
• The linear scales printed at the bottom of Smith charts are used to find the
SWR, dB loss, and reflection coefficient.
For the constant r circles:
1.The centers of all the constant r circles
are on the horizontal axis – real part of the
reflection coefficient.
2.The radius of circles decreases when r
increases.
3.All constant r circles pass through the
point r =1, i = 0.
4.The normalized resistance r = is at the
point r =1, i = 0.
• The input impedance can be found graphically via so called Smith chart.
The normalized impedance at any location is complex and can be found as:
z j tan kL
zin ( L) L
1 jz L tan kL
An arbitrary normalized load impedance is:
z L r jx
Where: RL XL
r ; x
Zc Zc
Since the line is assumed to be lossless, its characteristic impedance is real.
The reflection coefficient will be complex:
z 1
r j i L
zL 1
1 1 r j i 1 r 2 i 2 2 i
z L r jx j
1 1 r j i 1 r i 1 r i 2
2 2 2
r 1 i
2 1 1
x x
• family of circles in a plane
• axes - r and I
• All circles are inside the unit circle since maximal = 1.
The constant r circles are orthogonal to the constant x circles at every intersection.
The actual (de-normalized) load impedance is:
Z L Z c (r jx)
Since the transmission line is lossless, the magnitude of the reflection coefficient is
constant at every point between the load and the signal generator.
j L zL 1
e
zL 1
0 1
The input impedance at any arbitrary point (say, -z’) is
Example 9.9: On the simplified Smith chart, locate the following normalized
impedances:
a ) z 1 j 0;
b) z 0.5 j 0.5
c) z 0 j 0;
d ) z 0 j1;
e) z 1 j 2;
f ) z
Impedance to admittance Conversion
1
y 1 j1
0.5 j 0.5
• The load impedance is first normalized and is located on the Smith chart.
• A line is drawn from the 1.0 point through the load to the outer wavelength
scale.
Figures of Merit
• Insertion loss
• Frequency Range
• Isolation
• Power Handling Capability
Hybrid Tee junction
There are two ways of connecting the third arm to the waveguide –
1. along the long dimension (E-plane Tee)
2. along the narrow dimension (H-Plane Tee)
The E-plane and H-plane tees can be combined to form a hybrid tee junction called Magic
Tee
Various T-junction power dividers. (a) E plane waveguide T. (b) H plane waveguide T. (c) Microstrip T-junction.
• There are fringing fields and higher order
modes associated with the discontinuity at
such a junction, leading to stored energy that
• can be matched at all ports
can be accounted for by a lumped
• not lossless
susceptance B .
• isolation not achieved.
• Lossless case, B=0
• In order for the divider to be matched to the
input line of characteristic impedance Z0
• Yin = Z0
• reactive tuning
• lossless
• not matched at all ports
• does not have isolation between output
ports.
• A lossy three-port
network can be made
having all ports matched
with isolation between
the output ports.
• lossless when the output
ports are matched
• i.e. only reflected power
is dissipated.
• fabrication difficult in
planar form
• requires crossovers
for the resistors for
N>3
• can also be made with
stepped multiple sections,
for increased BW.
.(a) An equal-split Wilkinson power divider in microstrip form. (b) Equivalent transmission line
circuit, (c) Frequency response of an equal-split Wilkinson power divider. Port 1 is the input port;
ports 2 and 3 are the output ports.
Branch - line Coupler.
Coupled Transmission Line
Various geometries. (a) Coupled stripline (planar, or edge-coupled). (b) Coupled stripline (stacked, or broadside-coupled).
(c) Coupled microstrip.
A three-wire coupled transmission line and its equivalent capacitance network.
Even- and odd-mode excitations for a coupled line, and the resulting equivalent capacitance networks. (a) Even-mode
excitation. (b) Odd-mode excitation.
(a) Coupling versus frequency for the single-section coupler
(b) Coupling versus frequency for the three-section binomial coupler
180° Hybrid Junction.
Hybrid junctions. (a) A ring hybrid, or rate-
race, in microstrip or stripline form.
(b) A tapered coupled line hybrid. (c) A
waveguide hybrid junction, or magic-T.
Electric field lines for a waveguide hybrid junction. (a) Incident wave at port 1. (b) Incident wave at port 4.
Circulator
• A circulator is a three terminal device that will allow RF to flow between any two adjacent ports. This flow is
restricted to one direction only.
Figures of Merit
• Insertion loss
• Frequency Range
• Isolation
• Power Handling Capability
Isolator
• A isolator is a two terminal device that will allow RF to flow in one direction. It is used to protect source and
improve the input and output return loss.
Figures of Merit
• Insertion loss
• Frequency Range
• Isolation
• Power Handling Capability
Directional Coupler
• The basic function of a directional coupler is to operate on an input so that two output signals are available.
However, when the input is applied to the opposite port of an internally terminated coupler, only one output
signal is produced.
• A schematic representation of the coupler is as shown in fig; the arrows show signal flow:
• The coupler can be used to tap the main line power which can be used for different measurement.
• Coupling Coefficient: The ratio in dB of the incident power fed into the main port to the coupled port power
when all ports are terminated by reflection less terminations.
• Directivity : In the case of a bi-directional coupler, an alternative definition is the difference in dB of the power
output of the two coupled ports, when power is transmitted in a constant direction on the main-line. Reflection
less terminations are assumed to be connected to all ports.
Figures of Merit
• A duplexer is the network that permits a transmitter and receiver to use the same antenna.
• In a diplexer, the signals have to be offset in frequency by an appreciable percentage so the filters can do
their job sorting them out. Diplexers are used in communications.
Figures of Merit
• Insertion loss
• Frequency Range
• Isolation
• Power Handling Capability
Attenuators
• A device used to reduce power levels of a signal by a fixed amount with little or no reflections.
Structures
• Single Layer SLC • Multi Layer MLC
– Two plates separated by a dielectric. – A parallel array of capacitors in a common
– Simple to fabricate structure.
– Area/thickness limited – High C/V can be achieved
– Cap Ranges of .05 pF to 2000 pF – More complex to manufacture
– Cap Ranges of .10 pF to 5100 pF
Circuit representation
RF Components
Capacitors
Electrical Properties
• IR = Insulation Resistance
– DC Resistance which is a function of the dielectric. It is the ability of the capacitor to oppose the flow
of electricity at a given direct voltage.
• DF = Dissipation Factor
– Loss Tangent is the ratio of energy “used up” by a working capacitor divided by the amount of energy
stored over a definite period of time. It is a measure of the capacitors operating efficiency.
• ESR = Equivalent Series Resistance
– The effective resistance to the passage of RF energy
RF Components
Inductors