Operating System Ch8 Main Memory 20190330
Operating System Ch8 Main Memory 20190330
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Address Binding
Programs on disk, ready to be brought into memory to
execute form an input queue
Without support, must be loaded into address 0000
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Binding of Instructions and Data to Memory
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Multistep Processing of a User Program
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Logical vs. Physical Address Space
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Memory-Management Unit (MMU)
Hardware device that at run time maps virtual to
physical address
To start, consider simple scheme where the value
in the relocation register is added to every address
generated by a user process at the time it is sent to
memory
Base register now called relocation register
MS-DOS on Intel 80x86 used 4 relocation
registers
The user program deals with logical addresses; it
never sees the real physical addresses
Execution-time binding occurs when reference is
made to location in memory
Logical address bound to physical addresses
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Dynamic relocation using a relocation register
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Swapping
A process can be swapped temporarily out of
memory to a backing store, and then brought back
into memory for continued execution
Total physical memory space of processes can
exceed physical memory
Backing store – fast disk large enough to
accommodate copies of all memory images for all
users; must provide direct access to these memory
images
Roll out, roll in – swapping variant used for priority-
based scheduling algorithms; lower-priority process
is swapped out so higher-priority process can be
loaded and executed
Major part of swap time is transfer time; total
transfer time is directly proportional to the amount
of memory swapped
System maintains a ready queue of ready-to-run
processes which have memory images on disk
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Swapping (Cont.)
Does the swapped out process need to swap back in
to same physical addresses?
Depends on address binding method
Plus consider pending I/O to / from process
memory space
Modified versions of swapping are found on many
systems (i.e., UNIX, Linux, and Windows)
Swapping normally disabled
Started if more than threshold amount of memory
allocated
Disabled again once memory demand reduced
below threshold
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Schematic View of Swapping
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Context Switch Time including Swapping
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Context Switch Time and Swapping (Cont.)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Contiguous Allocation
Main memory must support both OS and user
processes
Limited resource, must allocate efficiently
Contiguous allocation is one early method
Main memory usually into two partitions:
Resident operating system, usually held in low
memory with interrupt vector
User processes then held in high memory
Each process contained in single contiguous
section of memory
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Contiguous Allocation (Cont.)
Relocation registers used to protect user processes
from each other, and from changing operating-system
code and data
Base register contains value of smallest physical
address
Limit register contains range of logical addresses
– each logical address must be less than the limit
register
MMU maps logical address dynamically
Can then allow actions such as kernel code being
transient and kernel changing size
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Hardware Support for Relocation and Limit Registers
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Multiple-partition allocation
Multiple-partition allocation
Degree of multiprogramming limited by number of partitions
Variable-partition sizes for efficiency (sized to a given process’
needs)
Hole – block of available memory; holes of various size are
scattered throughout memory
When a process arrives, it is allocated memory from a hole large
enough to accommodate it
Process exiting frees its partition, adjacent free partitions
combined
Operating system maintains information about:
a) allocated partitions b) free partitions (hole)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem
How to satisfy a request of size n from a list of free holes?
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Fragmentation
External Fragmentation – total memory space
exists to satisfy a request, but it is not
contiguous
Internal Fragmentation – allocated memory may
be slightly larger than requested memory; this
size difference is memory internal to a partition,
but not being used
First fit analysis reveals that given N blocks
allocated, 0.5 N blocks lost to fragmentation
1/3 may be unusable -> 50-percent rule
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Segmentation
Memory-management scheme that supports user view of
memory
A program is a collection of segments
A segment is a logical unit such as:
main program
procedure
function
method
object
local variables, global variables
common block
stack
symbol table
arrays
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
User’s View of a Program
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Logical View of Segmentation
4
1
3 2
4
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Segmentation Architecture
Logical address consists of a two tuple:
<segment-number, offset>,
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Segmentation Architecture (Cont.)
Protection
With each entry in segment table associate:
validation bit = 0 illegal segment
read/write/execute privileges
Protection bits associated with segments; code
sharing occurs at segment level
Since segments vary in length, memory
allocation is a dynamic storage-allocation
problem
A segmentation example is shown in the
following diagram
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Segmentation Hardware
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Paging
Physical address space of a process can be noncontiguous;
process is allocated physical memory whenever the latter
is available
Avoids external fragmentation
Avoids problem of varying sized memory chunks
Divide physical memory into fixed-sized blocks called
frames
Size is power of 2, between 512 bytes and 16 Mbytes
Divide logical memory into blocks of same size called pages
Keep track of all free frames
To run a program of size N pages, need to find N free frames
and load program
Set up a page table to translate logical to physical
addresses
Backing store likewise split into pages
Still have Internal fragmentation
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Address Translation Scheme
Address generated by CPU is divided into:
Page number (p) – used as an index into a page
table which contains base address of each page in
physical memory
Page offset (d) – combined with base address to
define the physical memory address that is sent to
the memory page
unitnumber page offset
p d
m -n n
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Paging Hardware
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Paging Model of Logical and Physical Memory
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Paging Example
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Paging (Cont.)
Calculating internal fragmentation
Page size = 2,048 bytes
Process size = 72,766 bytes
35 pages + 1,086 bytes
Internal fragmentation of 2,048 - 1,086 = 962 bytes
Worst case fragmentation = 1 frame – 1 byte
On average fragmentation = 1 / 2 frame size
So small frame sizes desirable?
But each page table entry takes memory to track
Page sizes growing over time
Solaris supports two page sizes – 8 KB and 4 MB
Process view and physical memory now very different
By implementation process can only access its own memory
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Free Frames
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Implementation of Page Table
Page table is kept in main memory
Page-table base register (PTBR) points to the
page table
Page-table length register (PTLR) indicates size
of the page table
In this scheme every data/instruction access
requires two memory accesses
One for the page table and one for the data /
instruction
The two memory access problem can be solved
by the use of a special fast-lookup hardware
cache called associative memory or translation
look-aside buffers (TLBs)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Implementation of Page Table (Cont.)
Some TLBs store address-space identifiers (ASIDs)
in each TLB entry – uniquely identifies each
process to provide address-space protection for
that process
Otherwise need to flush at every context
switch
TLBs typically small (64 to 1,024 entries)
On a TLB miss, value is loaded into the TLB for
faster access next time
Replacement policies must be considered
Some entries can be wired down for permanent
fast access
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Associative Memory
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Paging Hardware With TLB
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Effective Access Time
Associative Lookup = time unit
Can be < 10% of memory access time
Hit ratio =
Hit ratio – percentage of times that a page number is
found in the associative registers; ratio related to
number of associative registers
Consider = 80%, = 20ns for TLB search, 100ns for
memory access
Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 + ) + (2 + )(1 – )
=2+–
Consider = 80%, = 20ns for TLB search, 100ns for
memory access
EAT = 0.80 x 100 + 0.20 x 200 = 120ns
Consider more realistic hit ratio -> = 99%, = 20ns for
TLB search, 100ns for memory access
EAT = 0.99 x 100 + 0.01 x 200 = 101ns
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Memory Protection
Memory protection implemented by associating
protection bit with each frame to indicate if read-
only or read-write access is allowed
Can also add more bits to indicate page
execute-only, and so on
Valid-invalid bit attached to each entry in the page
table:
“valid” indicates that the associated page is in
the process’ logical address space, and is thus
a legal page
“invalid” indicates that the page is not in the
process’ logical address space
Or use page-table length register (PTLR)
Any violations result in a trap to the kernel
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Valid (v) or Invalid (i) Bit In A Page Table
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 8.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
End of Chapter 8