ANCIENT HISTORY

THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

Copper was the first metal to be used by man for making tools.
Gradually several cultures developed in Indian subcontinent which were
based on the use of stone and copper tools. They also used bronze, a
mixture of copper and tin, for this purpose. This phase in history is
known as the Chalcolithic chalco-Copper; lithic-Stone) period. The
brightest chapter in the Chalcolithic period in India is the Harappan
civilization which is also referred to as the Indus Valley civilization.
Harappan civilization was discovered in 1920–22 when two of its most
important sites were excavated. These were Harappa on the banks of the
river Ravi and Mohenjodaro on the banks of the Indus. The first was
excavated by D. R. Sahani and the second by R.D. Bannerji. On the basis
of the archaeological findings the Harappan civilization has been dated
between 2600 B.C–1900 BC and is one of the oldest civilizations of the
world. It is also sometimes referred to as the ‘Indus Valley civilization’
because in the beginning majority of its settlements discovered were in
and around the plains of the river Indus and its tributaries. But today it
is termed as the Harappan civilization because Harappa was the first
site, which brought to light the presence of this civilization. Besides,
recent archaeological findings indicate that this civilization was spread
much beyond the Indus Valley. Therefore, it is better it is called as the
Harappan civilization. It is the first urban culture of India and is
contemporaneous with other ancient civilizations of the world such as
those of Mesopotamia and Egypt.
The archaeological remains show that before the emergence of Harappan civilization the people lived in small villages. As the time passed, there was the
emergence of small towns which ultimately led to full-fledged towns during the Harappan period. The whole period of Harappan civilization is in fact divided
into three phases:
(i) Early Harappan phase (3500 BC–2600 BC) – it was marked by some town-planning in the form of mud structures, elementary trade, arts and crafts, etc.
(ii) Mature Harappan phase (2600 BC–1900 BC) – it was the period in which we notice welldeveloped towns with burnt brick structures, inland and foreign trade,
crafts of various types, etc.

(iii) Late Harappan phase (1900 BC–1400 BC) – it was the phase of
decline during which many cities were abandoned and the trade
disappeared leading to the gradual decay of the significant urban
traits.
• The archaeological excavations reveal that this culture was spread
over a vast area which included not only the present day states of
India such as Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Western Uttar Pradesh but also Pakistan and some parts of
Afghanistan. Some important sites of this civilization are: Manda in
Jammu and Kashmir; Shortughai in Afghanistan; Harappa in
Western Punjab (Pakistan); Mohenjodaro and Chanhudaro in Sind;
Kalibangan in Rajasthan; Lothal and Dholavira in Gujarat; Banawali
and Rakhigarhi in Haryana; Daimabad in Maharashtra while
Sutkagendor on the Makran Coast (near Pakistan-Iran border) is the
western most site of the Harappan civilization and Alamgirpur in
• The most interesting urban feature of Harappan civilization is its town-planning. It is
marked by considerable uniformity, though one can notice some regional variations as well.
The uniformity is noticed in the lay-out of the towns, streets, structures, brick size, drains
etc. Almost all the major sites (Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan and others), are divided
into two parts–a citadel on higher mound on the western side and a lower town on the
eastern side of the settlement. The citadel contain large structures which might have
functioned as administrative or ritual centres. The residential buildings are built in the
lower town. The streets intersect each other at right angles in a criss-cross pattern. It divides
the city in several residential blocks. The main street is connected by narrow lanes. The
doors of the houses opened in these lanes and not the main streets.
• The houses of common people, however, differed in size from a single-room house in
Harappa to bigger structures. The houses were largely built of burnt bricks. The bigger
houses had many rooms surrounding a square courtyard. These houses were provided
with private wells, kitchens and bathing plateforms. The difference in the size of the houses
suggests that the rich lived in the larger houses whereas the one-room buildings or barracks
might have been intended for the poorer section of the society.
• The drainage system of the Harappans was elaborate and well laidout. Every house had
drains, which opened into the street drains. These drains were covered with manholes
bricks or stone slabs (which could be removed for cleaning) were constructed at regular
intervals by the side of the streets for cleaning. This shows that the people were well
acquainted with the science of sanitation.
 Agriculture
• The prosperity of the Harappan civilization was based on its
flourishing economic activities such as agriculture, arts and
crafts, and trade. The availability of fertile Indus alluvium
contributed to the surplus in agricultural production. It helped
the Harappan people to indulge in exchange, both internal and
external, with others and also develop crafts and industries.
Agriculture alongwith pastoralism (cattle-rearing) was the base
of Harappan economy. The granaries discovered at sites like
Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Lothal served asthe storehouses for
grains. We do not have any clear evidence of the tools used for
agriculture. However, the furrows or plough-marks have been
observed in a field at Kalibangan. These indicate plough
cultivation. A terracotta plough has also been reported from
Banawali in Hissar district of Haryana. The irrigation was
carried on a small scale by drawing water from wells or by
diverting river water into channels.
• The chief food crops included wheat, barley, sesasum, mustard,
peas, jejube, etc. The evidence for rice has come from Lothal and
Rangpur in the form of husks embedded in pottery. Cotton was
another important crop. A piece of woven cloth has been found
at Mohenjodaro. Apart from cereals, fish and animal meat also
formed a part of the Harappan diet.
 Industries and Crafts
• The Harappan people were aware of almost all the metals except iron.
They manufactured gold and silver objects. The gold objects include
beads, armlets, needles and other ornaments. But the use of silver was
more common than gold. A large number of silver ornaments, dishes,
etc. have been discovered. A number of copper tools and weapons have
also been discovered. The common tools included axe, saws, chisels,
knives, spearheads and arrowheads. It is important to note that the
weapons produced by the Harappans were mostly defensive in nature
as there is no evidence of weapons like swords, etc. Stone tools were
also commonly used. Copper was brought mainly from Khetri in
Rajasthan. Gold might have been obtained from the Himalayan river-
beds and South India, and silver from Mesopotamia. We also have the
evidence of the use of the bronze though in limited manner. The most
famous specimen in this regard is the bronze ‘dancing girl’ figurine
discovered at Mohenjodaro.
• Bead-making also was an important craft. Beads were made of precious
and semiprecious stones such as agate and carnelian. Steatite was used
for making beads. The evidence of beadmakers’ shops have been found
at Chanhudaro and Lothal. Gold and silver beads have also been found.
Ivory carving and inlaying used in beads, bracelets and other
• Pottery-making was also an important industry in the Harappan period. These
were chiefly wheel-made and were treated with a red coating and had
decorations in black. These are found in various sizes and shapes. The painted
designs consist of horizontal lines of varied thickness, leaf patterns, palm and
pipal trees. Birds, fishes and animals are also depicted on potteries.
• The Harappans manufactured seals of various kinds. More than two thousand
seals have been discovered from different sites. These were generally square in
shape and were made of steatite.
• It is noteworthy that while the seals depict a number of animals there is no
representation of horse on these. It has led many scholars to argue that horse
was not known to the Harappan people though there are others who do not
accept this argument. Besides various kinds of animals, the Harappan seals
contain some signs in the Harappan script which however has not been
deciphered so far. The most famous of the seals is the one with a horned male
deity represented on it. He has three heads and is sitting in a yogic posture
surrounded by four animals viz elephant, tiger, rhinoceros and a buffalo. He
has been identified by many scholars with the ancient form of the god
Pashupati (Lord of beasts) though there are others who dispute this
Trade
• Trading network, both internal (within the country) and external (foreign), was a significant feature of
the urban economy of the Harappans. As the urban population had to depend on the surrounding
countryside for the supply of food and many other necessary products, there emerged a village-town
(rural-urban) interrelationship. Similarly, the urban craftsmen needed markets to sell their goods in
other areas. It led to the contact between the towns. The traders also established contacts with foreign
lands particularly Mesopotamia where these goods were in demand.
• The Harappans were engaged in external trade with Mesopotamia. It was largely through Oman and
Behrain in the Persian Gulf. It is confirmed by the presence of Harappan artefacts such as beads, seals,
dice etc. in these regions. Though the artefacts from those regions are rarely found at the Harappan
sites, a seal of West Asian or Persian origin has been discovered at Lothal which confirms this contact.
Mesopotamian cities like Susa, Ur, etc. have yielded about two dozen of Harappan seals. Besides seals,
other artefacts of Harappan origin which have been discovered include potteries, etched carnelian
beads and dices with Harappan features.
• The inscriptional evidence from Mesopotamia also provides us with valuable information on
Harappan contact with Mesopotamia. These inscriptions refer to trade with Dilmun, Magan and
Meluhha. Scholars have identified Meluhha with Harappan region, Magan with the Makran coast, and
Dilmun with Bahrain. They indicate that Mesopotamia imported copper, carnelian, ivory, shell, lapis-
lazuli, pearls and ebony from Meluhha. The export from Mesopotamia to Harappans included items
such as garments, wool, perfumes, leather products and sliver. Except silver all these products are
perishable. This may be one important reason why we do not find the remains of these goods at
 SOCIAL DIFFERENTIATION
• The Harappan society appears to have been matriarchal in nature. This
view is based on the popularity of the mother goddess as indicated by
the finding of a large number of terracotta female figurines in Punjab
and Sind region. As Harappan script has not been deciphered till now,
we have to satisfy ourselves with this limited information on this issue.
• The Harappan Society comprised of people following diverse
professions. These included the priests, the warriors, peasants, traders
and artisans (masons, weavers, goldsmith, potters, etc.) The structural
remains at sites such as Harappa and Lothal show that different types of
buildings that were used as residence by different classes. The presence
of a class of workmen is proved by workmen quarters near the granary
at Harappa. Similarly, the workshops and houses meant for
coppersmiths and beadmakers have been discovered at Lothal. Infact,
we can say that those who lived in larger houses belonged to the rich
class whereas those living in the barracks like workmen quarters were
from the class of labourers.
• Harappan people loved to decorate themselves. Hair dressing by both,
men and women, is evident from figurines found at different sites. The
men as well as women arranged their hair in different styles. The people
were also fond of ornaments. These mainly included necklaces, armlets,
earrings, beads, bangles, etc., used by both the sexes. Rich people appear
to have used the ornaments of gold, silver and semi-precious stones
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICES
• Our knowledge on the religious beliefs and practices of the Harappans is largely based on the
Harappan seals and terracotta figurines available to us. The Harappan religion is normally termed
as animism i.e., worship of trees, stones etc.) A large number of terracotta figurines discovered at
the Harappan sites have been associated with the worship of mother goddess. Many of these
represent females adorned with a wide girdle, loin cloth and necklaces. They wear a fan-shaped
head dress. In some cases the female is shown with an infant while there is one that shows a plant
growing out of the uterus of a woman. The latter type probably symbolizes the goddess of earth.
There are many scholars who refer to the worshiping of linga (phallus) and yoni (female sex organ)
by the Harappans but some are doubtful about it.
• Harappans’ belief in a male deity is evident by the seal depicting a deity with a buffalohorned
head-dress, sitting in a yogic posture and surrounded by animals. Many scholars identify him with
god Pashupati (Lord of beasts) or ‘Proto-Shiva’ though some dispute it. In another instance, a deity
is shown with horns and flowing hair standing nude between the branches of a Pipal tree and a
worshipper is kneeling in front. It may represent tree worship. Animal worship also appears to be
popular among the Harappans.
• The evidence of fire worship has also been found at some sites such as Kalibangan and Lothal. At
Kalibangan, a series of raised brick platforms with pits containing ash and animal bones have been
discovered. These are identified by many scholars as fire altars. This also shows that the Harappans
living in different areas followed different religious practices as there is no evidence of fire-pits at
THE SCRIPT
The Harappans were literate people. Harappan seals, are engraved with
various signs or characters. Recent studies suggest that the Harappan
script consists of about 400 signs and that it was written from right to left.
However, the script has not been deciphered as yet. It is believed that they
used ideograms i.e., a graphic symbol or character to convey the idea
directly. We do not know the language they spoke, though scholars believe
that they spoke “Brahui”, a dialect used by Baluchi people in Pakistan
today. However further research alone can unveil the mystery and enable
us to know more about the Harappan script.
DECLINE OF THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
• It is suggested by some scholars that natural calamities such as floods and
earthquakes might have caused the decline of the civilization. It is believed
that earthquakes might have raised the level of the flood plains of the lower
course of Indus river. It blocked the passage of the river water to the sea and
resulted in the floods which might have swallowed the city of Mohenjodaro.
However, this only explains the decline of Mohenjodaro and not of the whole
civilization.
• Increased aridity and drying up of the river Ghaggar-Harka on account of the
changes in river courses, according to some scholars, might have contributed
to the decline. This theory states that there was an increase in arid conditions
by around 2000 BC. This might have affected agricultural production, and led
to the decline.
• Aryan invasion theory is also put forward as a cause for the decline.
According to this, the Harappan civilization was destroyed by the Aryans who
came to India from north-west around 1500 BC. However, on the basis of
THE VEDIC AGE (1500BC–600BC)
The Harappans lived in cities and had a well organized trade and craft activities. They also had a
script which we have been so far not able to decipher. However around 1900 BC these cities began
to decline. A number of rural settlements appeared afterwards. These rural settlements show
continuity of certain Harappan elements. Around the same time we find archaeological evidence
of the arrival of new people known as Aryans or Indo-Aryans on the outskirts of the Harappan
region. In the present lesson, we shall study the circumstances under which these new people
arrived and also learn about the main features of their culture as depicted in the literature called
the Vedas.
Originally the Aryans seem to have lived somewhere in the Steppes stretching from southern
Russia to Central Asia. From here, a group of them migrated to northwest India and came to be
called Indo-Aryans or just Aryans. The archaeological evidence of migrations comes from what is
known as Andronovo Culture situated in southern Siberia. This Culture flourished in the second
millennium BC. From here people moved to north of Hindukush (the area known as Bactria-
Margiana Archaeological Complex) and from here they entered India.
During the period between 1900 BC and 1500 BC we get, in these regions, evidence of horses,
spoked wheels, fire cult and cremation which formed important parts of Aryan life in India. Apart
from these, the artifacts and ceramics also suggest movement of people from Central Asian region
to South Asian region. However it may be noted that some scholars still argue that the Aryans
The early Vedic Aryans lived in the area
known as sapta-sindhu meaning area of
seven rivers. This area largely covers the
northwestern part of South Asia up to
river Yamuna. The seven rivers included
Sindhu, Vitasta (Jhelum), Asikni
(Chenab), Parushni (Ravi), Vipash
(Beas), Shutudri (Sutlej) and the
Sarasvati. In this area the Rigvedic
people lived, fought battles, grazed their
herds of cattle and other domesticated
animals. Gradually moving eastward,
they came to occupy eastern U.P.
(Kosala) and north Bihar (Videha)
during the Later Vedic period. Here they
came into contact with the people who
spoke languages different from their
own and were living in this area for
long.
EARLY VEDIC ECONOMY
• The early Vedic Aryans were pastoralists. Cattle rearing was their main occupation. They reared
cattle, sheep, goats, and horses for purposes of milk, meat and hides. We arrive at this
conclusion after analyzing the literary evidence in the Rigveda. A large number of words are
derived from the word go meaning cow. A wealthy person was known as gomat and the
daughter called duhitri which means one who milks the cow. The word gaveshana literally
means search for cows, but it also means battle since many battles were fought over cattle. The
cows were thought of as providers of everything. Prayers are offered for increase in the number
of cattle. All the above and many more references show that cattle breeding was the most
important economic activity of the Rigvedic Aryans.
• However, this is not to suggest that the early Vedic people had no knowledge of agriculture. The
evidence for agriculture in comparison with pastoral activities in the earlyportions is meager
and mostly late insertions. A few references show that they had knowledge of agriculture and
practiced it to supplement their food requirements. They produced yava (modern jau or barley),
which was rather a generic word for cereals.
• Apart from cattle-rearing and small-scale cultivation, people were engaged in many other
economic activities. Hunting, carpentry, tanning, weaving, chariot-making, metal smeltry etc.
were some such activities. The products of these activities were exchanged through barter.
However, cows were the most favoured medium of exchange. The priests received cows, horses
CHANGES IN THE LATER VEDIC PHASE
• During later Vedic phase, agriculture became the mainstay of the Vedic people. Many rituals were
introduced to initiate the process of agriculture. It also speaks of ploughing with yokes of six and eight
oxen. The buffalo had been domesticated for the agricultural purposes. This animal was extremely
useful in ploughing the swampy land. The god Indra acquires a new epithet ‘Lord of the Plough’ in this
period. The number and varieties of plant food increased. Apart from barley, people now cultivated
wheat, rice, pulses, lentils, millet,sugarcane etc. The items of dana and Dakshina included cooked rice.
Thus with the beginning of food production agricultural produce began to be offered in the rituals. Tila,
from which the first widely used vegetable food-oil was derived increasingly, came to be used in rituals.
• The main factor in the expansion of the Aryan culture during the later Vedic period was the beginning
of the use of iron around 1000 BC. The Rigvedic people knew of a metal called ayas which was either
copper or bronze. In the later Vedic literature ayas was qualified with shyama or krishna meaning black
to denote iron. Archaeology has shown that iron began to be used around 1000 BC which is also the
period of later Vedic literature. The northern and eastern parts of India to which the Aryans later
migrated receive more rainfall than the north-western part of India. As a result this region is covered
with thick rain forests which could not be cleared by copper or stone tools used by Rigvedic people. The
use of iron tools now helped people clear the dense rain forests particularly the huge stumps left after
burning, in a more effective manner. Large tracts of forestland could be converted into cultivable pieces
in relatively lesser time. The iron plough could turn the soil from deeper portions making it more fertile.
This process seems to have begun during the later part of the Rigvedic period but the effect of iron tools
and implements become evident only towards the end of the Later Vedic period.
 THE EARLY VEDIC SOCIETY
• The family was the basic unit of the Rigvedic society. It was patriarchal in
nature Monogamy was the usual norm of marriage but the chiefs at times
practiced polygamy. Marriages took place after attaining maturity. After
marriage the wife went to her husband’s house. The family was part of a
larger grouping called vis or clan.
• One or more than one clans made jana or tribe. The jana was the largest
social unit. All the members of a clan were related to each other by blood
relation. The membership of a tribe was based on birth and not on
residence in a certain area. Thus the members of the Bharata tribe were
known as the Bharatas. It did not imply any territory.
• The Rigvedic society was a simple and largely an egalitarian society.
There was no caste division. Occupation was not based on birth.
Members of a family could adopt different occupations. However certain
differences did exist during the period. Varna or colour was the basis of
initial differentiation between the Vedic and non-Vedic people. The Vedic
people were fair whereas the non-Vedic indigenous people were dark in
complexion and spoke a different language. Thus the Rigveda mentions
arya varna and dasa varna.
• Here dasa has been used in the sense of a group different from the
Rigvedic people. Later, dasa came to mean a slave. Besides, certain
practices during this period, such as concentration of larger share of the
war booty in the hands of the chiefs and priests resulted in the creation of
some inequalities within a tribe during the later part of this Vedic phase.
SOCIAL CHANGES IN THE LATER VEDIC PHASE
• The family remains the basic unit of the Vedic society. However, its composition
underwent a change. The later Vedic family became large enough to be called a joint-
family with three or four generations living together. The rows of hearths discovered
at Atranjikhera and at Ahichchhtra (both in western Uttar Pradesh) show that these
were meant for communal feeding or for cooking the food of large families. The
institution of gotra developed in this period. This means that people having common
gotra descended from a common ancestor and no marriage between the members of
the same gotra could take place. Monogamous marriages were preferred even though
polygamy was frequent. Some restrictions on women appeared during this period. In
a text women have been counted as a vice along with dice and wine. In another text a
daughter has been said to be the source of all sorrows. Women had to stay with her
husband at his place after marriage. The participation of women in public meetings
was restricted.
• Another important institution that began to take shape was ashrama or different
stages of life. Brahmacharya (student life), grihastha (householder), and vanaprastha
(hermitage) stages are mentioned in the texts. Later, sanyasa, the fourth stage also
came to be added. Together with varna, it came to be known as varna-ashrama
• However, the most important change was the rise and growth of social
differentiation in the form of varna system. The four varnas in which society
came to be divided were the brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and shudras.
The growing number of sacrifices and rituals during the period made the
brahmanas very powerful. They conducted various rituals including those
related to different stages of agricultural operations. This made them all the
more important. The kshatriyas, next in the social hierarchy, were the rulers.
They along with brahmanas controlled all aspects of life. The vaishyas, the
most numerous varna were engaged in agriculture as well as in trade and
artisanal activities. The brahmanas and the kshatriyas were dependent on the
tributes (gifts and taxes) paid to them by the vaishyas.
• The shudras, the fourth varna were at the bottom of the social hierarchy. They
were ordained to be in the service of the three upper varnas. They were not
entitled to the ritual of upanayana samskara (investiture with sacred thread
necessary to acquire education). The other three varnas were entitled to such
a ceremony and hence they were known as dvijas. This can be construed as
the beginning of the imposition of disabilities on the shudras as well as the
beginning of the concept of ritual pollution.
 THE EARLY VEDIC RELIGION
• The prayers to propitiate gods for physical protection and for material gains were the main
concerns of the Rigvedic people. The Rigvedic gods were generally personifications of different
aspects of natural forces such as rains, storm, sun etc. The attributes of these gods also reflect
the tribal and patriarchal nature of the society as we do not find many goddesses mentioned in
the text. Indra, Agni, Varuna, Mitra, Dyaus, Pushana, Yama, Soma, etc. are all male gods. In
comparison, we have only a few goddesses such as Ushas, Sarasvati, Prithvi, etc which occupy
secondary positions in the pantheon.
• All these gods were invoked and propitiated at yajnas or sacrifices. These sacrifices were
organized by the chiefs of the tribes and performed by priests. Gods thus invoked in the
sacrifices supposedly rewarded the sacrificers with success in wars, progeny, increase in cattle
and long life. It also brought large number of gifts in the form of dana and dakshina to the
priests.
• It is important here to note that during the entire Vedic phase people did not construct temples
nor did they worship any statue. These features of Indian religion developed much later.
CHANGES IN THE LATER VEDIC PHASE
• Changes in the material life naturally resulted in a change in their attitude towards gods
and goddesses too. Continuous interactions with the local non-Aryan population also
contributed to these changes. Thus, Vishnu and Rudra which were smaller deities in the
Rigveda became extremely important.
• However, we do not have any reference to different incarnations or avataras of Vishnu,
we are so familiar with, in any of the Later Vedic texts.
• Another important feature was the increase in the frequency and number of the yajna
which generally ended with the sacrifices of a large number of animals. This was
probably the result of the growing importance of a class of brahmanas and their efforts to
maintain their supremacy in the changing society. These yajnas brought to them a large
amount of wealth in form of dana and dakshina. Some of the important yajnas were -
ashvamedha, vajapeya, rajasuya etc.
• Therefore, a path of good conduct and self-sacrifice was recommended for happiness and
welfare in the last sections of the Vedas, called the Upnishads. The Upnishads contain
two basic principles of Indian philosophy viz., karma and the transmigration of soul, i.e.,
rebirth based on past deeds. According to these texts real happiness lies in getting
moksha i.e. freedom from this cycle of birth and re-birth.
THE EARLY VEDIC POLITY
• Chief social unit of the Aryans was known as jana. The chief of this unit was the political
leader called rajan. The main function of the chief was to protect the jana and cattle from the
enemies. He was helped in his task by the tribal assemblies called sabha, samiti, vidatha,
gana and parishad.
• Out of these sabha and samiti were the most important assemblies. All aspects of life were
discussed in these assemblies. These may include wars, distribution of the spoils of wars,
judicial and religious activities etc. Thus these assemblies in a way limited the powers of the
chiefs. Interestingly, women were also allowed to participate in the deliberations of the sabha
and samiti.
• The post of the chief was not hereditary. The tribe generally elected him. Though the
succession in one family was known but that was not based on the rule of primogeniture (i.e.,
the eldest son acquiring the position). The purohita assisted and advised the chief on various
matters. Other than the purohita, there were a limited number of other officials who assisted
the chief in the day-to-day tribal affairs. Senani, kulapa, gramani, etc. are some of the
functionaries which find mention in the Rigveda. The sena or army was not a permanent
fighting group and consisted of able bodied tribesmen who were mobilized at the time of the
wars. Takshan, the carpenter and rathakara, the chariot maker were responsible for making
chariots. There is no official mentioned as a collector of taxes. The people offered to the chief
CHANGES IN THE LATER VEDIC PHASE
• The nature of chiefship changed in this period. The territorial idea gained
ground. The people started to loose their control over the chief and the popular
assemblies gradually disappeared.
• The chiefship had become hereditary. The idea of the divine nature of kingship
gets a mention in the literature of this period. The brahmanas helped the chiefs in
this process. The elaborate coronation rituals such as vajapeya and rajasuya
established the chief authority. As the chiefs became more powerful, the
authority of the popular assemblies started waning. The officers were appointed
to help the chief in administration and they acquired the functions of the popular
assemblies as main advisors.
• A rudimentary army too emerged as an important element of the political
structure during this period. All these lived on the taxes called bali, the shulka,
and the bhaga offered by the people.
• The chiefs of this period belonged to the kshatriya varna and they in league with
the brahmanas tried to establish complete control over the people in the name of
However, all these elements do not show that a janapada or territorial state with all its attributes such as a
standing army and bureaucracy had emerged in the later Vedic period but the process has started and soon after
the vedic period in the sixth century BC we notice the rise of sixteen mahajanpadas in the northern India.
 FROM JANAPADAS TO EMPIRE
• In this period, the centre of economic and political activity shifted
from Haryana and western UP to Eastern UP and Bihar, which had
more rainfall and better fertility of land. As it was now easier to
exploit the iron ore resources of Bihar and adjoining regions, people
started using more and more iron tools and ploughshare to clear
thick forest cover and cultivate the hard soil of this area.
• The sixth century BC is known as an era of ‘Second Urbanisation’ in
the Indian Subcontinent. After the decline of the Harappan Towns
urban centres now emerge again after a gap of more than a thousand
years. However, this time towns developed in the middle Ganga
basin and not in the Indus plain. It is said that more than sixty towns
and cities such as Pataliputra, Rajagriha, Sravasti, Varanasi, Vaishali,
Champa, Kaushambi and Ujjaini developed between 600 and 300 BC.
These cities became centre of craft production and trade, and were
inhabited by a large number of artisans and merchants. The goods
produced by artisans like textile, silk, jewellery, pottery etc, were
carried by merchants to other towns. Varanasi was a major centre of
trade connected with Sravasti and Kaushambi. Sravasti was also
connected with Vaishali through Kapilavastu and Kusinara. Jataka
stories tell us that traders travelled from Magadh and Kosala via
Mathura to Taxila. Mathura was the transit point for travel to Ujjain
and coastal areas of Gujarat also.
The improvement in agriculture and development of trade, money and
urbanisation had an impact on the society as well. Indeed, due to these changes
traditional equality and brotherhood gave way to inequality and social conflict.
People wanted some kind of reprieve from new social problems like violence,
cruelty, theft, hatred, and falsehood. Therefore, when new religions such as
Jainism and Buddhism preached the concept of peace and social equality,
people welcomed it. These religions emphasised that true happiness does not lie
in material prosperity or performance of rituals but in charity, frugality, non-
violence, and good social conduct. Besides, the general economic progress had
led to the rise of vaisyas and other mercantile groups, who wanted better social
position than what brahmanas gave them. Therefore, they preferred to patronise
non-vedic religions like Buddhism and Jainism through substantial donations.
Buddhism and Jainism were not the only religions, which challenged
brahmanical dominance. According to the Buddhist sources, more than 62 sects
and philosophies flourished in this period. One of these sects was known as
Ajivika, which was founded by Makkhali Goshal. Ajivakas were very popular in
Magadh in the third century BC and Mauryan kings donated several caves in
the honour of Ajivaka monks.
 Jainism
• Vardhaman Mahavira, is regarded as the founder of Jainism. He was born in 599 BC near Vaishali
in Bihar. He was twenty-fourth and the last tirthankara of Jainism. Jainism believed that the main
goal of human life is the purification of soul and attainment of nirvana, which means freedom
from birth and death. This can be achieved not through rituals and sacrifices but by pursuance of
triratna and panchamahavrata. Triratna or three jewels are right faith, right knowledge, and right
conduct, which can lead to liberation. Right conduct means observance of five great vows: ahimsa
(do not commit violence) satya vachana (do not speak a lie), asteya (do not steal), brahmacharya
(do not indulge in sexual act) and aprigraha (do not acquire property). Householders were
expected to observe milder form of the practice of these virtues called anuvrata (small vows) in
comparison to the monks. So, one can notice that while the Brahmanism was a ritual oriented
religion this new faith was conduct-oriented.
• The most distinguishing feature of Jainism was the concept of anekantavada or syadavada. It
means that the truth can be viewed from aneka or various angels.
• Another important feature of Jainism was its emphasis on extreme form of penance, austerity, and
strict non-violence Perhaps emphasis on strict discipline was one of the reasons why it could not
attract the masses in large number. Mahavira used Prakrit language to spread his message.
However, just like other religions, Jainism also could not remain united for very long and later
divided into two sects called the Digambara (who remain naked) and Svetambara (who wear
white clothes).
Buddhism
• The founder of Buddhism was Gautama Buddha, who was born in 566 BC at Lumbini,
located in the foothills of Nepal. One night he left his palace in search of truth and
ultimately attained the true knowledge at Bodhgaya. He then began to be called
Buddha or the enlightened one. He delivered his first sermon at Sarnatha near
Varanasi. This event is known as dharma-chakra-pravartana (turning of the wheel of
law). He also established his samgha here. He died at the age of 80 in 486 B.C. at
Kusinara or Kusinagar near Gorakhpur in eastern UP.
• This philosophy of madhyama marga or the Middle Path is reflected in all the issues
related to Buddhism.
• Buddha used Pali language spoken by masses to propagate his teachings. Buddha
allowed lower varnas and women to join the sangha. Four Buddhist councils
organised over different periods played a significant role in the propagation of
Buddhism. In the fourth council during the reign of Kanishka, Buddhism split into
two major sects called Hinayana and Mahayana. Mahayana adopted Sanskrit as its
language and started worshipping Buddha in the form of an idol, while Hinayana
continued to follow Pali and treated Buddha as a guide.
• Buddhism became weak by seventh century AD but the impact of Buddhism can be
seen in all spheres of life in Indian history. Buddhist scholars created many literary
texts like Tripitaka, Milindapanho, Buddhacharita etc. Buddhism became an
inspiration for the promotion of art and architecture, in the form of stupas, rock cut
caves and paintings. These can be noticed at Sanchi, Bharhut, Amravati, Ajanta etc.
Buddhism inspired Gandhara and Mathura schools of art. Buddhism by opening its
door to all the classes challenged the superiority of Brahmanism and gave better social
THE SIXTEEN MAHAJANPADAS
The sixth century BC was not only a period of socio-economic
and religious development but it also witnessed new political
developments. In the later Vedic period, as we have seen earlier,
people had started agriculture, which made them settle down at
a particular place. These permanent settlements led to
foundation of janapadas or territorial states under the control of
the king. In the sixth century BC the main area of political
activity gradually shifted from Western UP to Eastern UP and
Bihar. This region was not only fertile on account of better
rainfall and river systems but was also closer to iron production
centres. The use of better iron tools and weapons enabled some
territorial states to become very large and they came to be called
mahajanapadas. Most of them were situated north of Vindhyas,
between Bihar in the east to the northwest frontier of the
subcontinent.
Most of these states were monarchical in nature but some of
them, called ganasangha, had an oligarcharical system of
governance. In this system unlike monarchies, where a
hereditary king rules, administration was run by an elected king
with the help of a large council or assemblies comprising heads
of all important clans and families. This system was certainly
more democratic than monarchy, though the common man had
no participation in the administration.
THE RISE OF MAGADH
• The political fight among these mahajanapadas led ultimately to one of them namely
Magadh to emerge as the most powerful state and the centre of a vast empire. The
earliest important ruler of Magadh was the king Bimbisara, who ruled for 52 years
from 544 BC to 492 BC. He pursued a three-pronged policy, namely, matrimonial
alliances, friendship with strong rulers and conquest of weak neighbours to expand
the empire. Under the policy of matrimonial alliances, he married the sister of
Prasenjit, the king of Kosala. He was a contemporary of both Buddha and Mahavira
and paid equal respect to them. It seems that he was either killed or forced to
commit suicide by his son Ajatasatru, who was eager to take over the throne himself.
• Ajatasatru was an aggressive person and first came into conflict with his maternal
uncle Prasenajit, who was aggrieved by the treatment meted out to Bimbisara. He
asked Ajatasatru to return the territory of Kasi, which was given to his mother in
dowry. Ajatasatru refused and it was only after a fierce battle Prasenajit agreed to
leave Kasi with Magadh. Similarly he fought with his maternal grandfather Chetak,
the chief of Vaishali and after 16 long years of war Ajatasatru succeeded in breaking
the might of Vaishali. Therefore, he not only retained Kasi, but also added Vaishali
to Magadh.
• Ajatasatru was succeeded by Udayin and his main contribution was
building a fort on the confluence of river Ganga and river Son at Pataliputra
or Patna. It was strategically a significant step as this site was not only
centrally located but also allowed easy movement of merchant and soldiers.
• Udayin was succeeded by the dynasty of Shishunaga. The most important
achievement of Shishunaga was to defeat Avanti(Malwa) and make it a part
of Magadh. The successor of Sisunaga was his son Kalashoka. It was during
his rule the second Buddhist council was held.
• The Shisunaga dynasty was succeeded by the kings of the Nanda dynasty.
Mahapadma Nanda was its most important ruler. According to the
Brahmanical texts he belonged to a low caste or at least a non-kshatriya
caste. He possessed a large army and added Kalinga to his empire. The last
Nanda king was Dhannanand. He is believed to be an arrogant and
oppressive ruler who imposed heavy taxes on the common man. It made
them quite unpopular among the masses and ultimately Chandragupta
took advantage of this public resentment and uprooted the Nanda rule and
set up the Mauryan Empire.
 THE MAURYAN AGE (322 BC-184 BC)
• Out of the sixteen Mahajanapadas, it was Magadha that
expanded considerably under powerful rulers like
Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Mahapadmananda. The last
king of the Nanda dynasty was defeated by
Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BC He established the
Maurya Empire uprooting Greeks from the Punjab and
Nandas from the Gangetic Plains. By a continuous
process of conquest and annexation he was able to unify
almost the whole of India. Chandragupta ruled from 322
BC to 297 BC. He embraced Jainism under the influence of
Bhadrabahu. He died at Sravanabelgola near Mysore.
• Bindusara (297 BC-272 BC), the son and successor of
Chandragupta Maurya, was also known as Mitraghata
(slayer of enemies). He is said to have conquered Deccan,
extending Mauryan control as far as Mysore. He also had
contacts with Antiochus I, the Greek ruler of West Asia. It
appears from the Buddhist literature that after the death
of Bindusara, there was a struggle for the throne among
his sons.
• Ashoka (272 BC-236 BC) emerged victorious in
this fratricidal war of succession and ascended
the throne of Magadha. An important event of
his reign was the famous Kalinga War in 260 BC
mentioned in his Rock Edict XIII. Later, Ashoka,
embraced Buddhism, and gave up war. He was
a benevolent ruler and did many things for the
welfare of his subjects. His policy of ‘dhamma’
was based on religious toleration, respect to
elders, care for the old, kindness, truthfulness
and purity. It was through his efforts that
Buddhism spread beyond the boundaries of
India. The rock edicts and pillar edicts inscribed
by him give a detailed account of his reign.
• After Ashoka’s death, his empire disintegrated
into pieces. There was also the danger of
foreign invasion. The economic condition of the
country deteriorated. The last king of the
Maurya dynasty was Brihadratha.
THE SANGAM AGE (300 BC-200 AD)
With the Sangam Age, the historical period began
in South India. The word ‘Sangam’ means an
assembly of scholars of literacy figures, held
under the royal patronage of Pandyan kings of
Madurai. Early Tamil literature comprised works
such as Tolkappiyam, the Eight Anthologies
(Ettutogai) the ‘ten Idylls’ (pattupattu), the
‘Eighteen Minor Works’ and the three Epics
(Shilappadikaram, Manimekalai and Sivaga
Sindamani). The Sangam Age extends roughly
between 300 BC to 200 A.D. Sangam literature
refers primarily to Pandyan Kingdom. But it also
contains valuable information about the Chola
and Chera kingdoms. The Pandyas ruled over an
areacomprising southern Tamil Nadu. Madurai
was their capital. The Cheras ruled over Kerala
and the Cholas occupied Northern Tamil Nadu
and Southern Andhra Pradesh.
 THE KUSHANA AGE
• After the fall of the Mauryan Empire, a number of foreign powers like the Bactrian
Greeks, the Shakas, the Parthians and the Kushanas invaded India. They ruled in the
western and north-western parts of India. The Kushanas were a branch of the Yue-
Chi tribe of Central Asia. The first ruler of the Kushanas was Kujula Kadphises. He
was succeeded by Vima Kadphises.
• The greatest ruler of the Kushana dynasty was Kanishka, who became king after
Vima. Kushana conquered Kashmir and established his supremacy over the
IndoGangetic plains. He occupied Kashgar, Yarkhand and Khotan in Central Asia.
Punjab and Afghanistan were also parts of the empire. Kanishka was a devoted
Buddhist. Through his efforts Buddhism spread to China, Central Asia and other
countries. He was also a great patron of art and learning. Purushapura (Peshawar)
was his capital.
• Kanishka’s successors were Vashishka, Huvishka, Kanishka II and Vasudeva.
Vasudeva was the last great ruler of the Kushanas. After his death the mighty
Kushana Empire quickly disintegrated. The fall of Kushana Empire marked the
beginning of political uncertainty in north India which continued for about a century.
THE GUPTA AGE (319AD-550 AD)
• The rise of Gupta Power in the 4th century AD marked the beginning of a
new era in Indian history. Confusion and political disunity were replaced
by integrity. Under the leadership and patronage of the powerful Gupta
monarchs, considerable progress was made in different aspects of Indian
life. There was also a high material prosperity, as mentioned by Fa-hien,
the Chinese traveler (4th–5th century AD).
• Maharaja Shri Gupta is said to be the founder of the Gupta dynasty. He
was succeeded by Ghatotkacha Gupta. But Chandragupta I (319-355 AD),
who assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja, was the first important Gupta
Monarch. Another important Gupta emperor was Samudragupta. The
eulogy, composed by his court poet Harisena, which is available as
Allahabad Pillar Inscription, gives a vivid account of Samudragupta’s
military exploits. Besides being a great conqueror and ruler, he was also a
poet of high order, patron of art and learning and a musician. He also
performed ‘Ashwamedha yajna’ – a symbol of imperial authority.
• Samudragupta was succeeded by Chandragupta II (380-415 AD)
who assumed the title of Vikramaditya after his victory over the
Shaka rulers of western India. In order to consolidate his power,
Samudragupta made important matrimonial alliances. His
daughter Prabhavati was married to the Vakataka ruler Rudrasena
II. The son and successor of Chandragupta II was Kumaragupta I
(415-455 AD), whose reign was marked with peace and prosperity.
He was succeeded by his son Skandagupta (455-467 AD), who
repulsed the Hun invasion several times. The successors of
Skandagupta (Purugupta, Budhagupta, Narasimhagupta) were
not so powerful and competent. This gradually led to the decline
and fall of the Gupta Empire.
• Monarchy was the prevailing system of government during the
Gupta Age. The king was assisted by a Council of Ministers and
other officials in day to day administration. The Guptas had a
powerful army. The provinces were ruled by governors. The
Governors had under them a number of officers who administered
the districts and towns. Village administration under the village
headman (Gramika) enjoyed considerable autonomy. The Guptas
also developed an efficient system of judicial and revenue
administration.
Post Gupta Age (550AD-750 AD)
• The period between the downfall of the Gupta Empire and the rise of Maharaja
Harshavardhana of Thaneshwar is considered to be a period of confusion and
disintegration. During this time India was broken into several small independent
states. Besides the Huna power, there were four other kingdoms in Northern
India. These were the later Guptas of Magadha, the Maukharis of Kanauj, the
Pushyabhutis of Thaneshwar and the Mitrakas of Vallabhi (Gujarat). Among the
important South Indian Dynasties were the Chalukyas of Badami and the Pallavas
of Kanchi. Pulakesin II (609-64 AD) and Narasimhavarman I (630-668 AD) are
considered to be the greatest of the Chalukya and the Pallava rulers respectively.
• It was Harshavardhana who again made an attempt to raise an empire. He was
called Sakalottarapathanatha because he had established his hold practically over
the whole of North India. During this time, the political unity of India was, to
some extent, restored. Harsha patronised Banabhatta, the author of Kadambari
and Harshacharita. Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese scholar-traveler, visited India
during Harsha’s reign. Shashanka, the king of Bengal, was a contemporary of
Harsha.
• This period of history witnessed the
consolidation of Hinduism. Hiuen
Tsang writes about the existence of
caste system in Indian society.
There was the rise of several mixed
and sub-castes. Hiuen Tsang also
mentions the existence of
untouchables and outcastes. The
position of women had also
declined considerably during this
period. In the religious field, the
ascendancy of Brahmanism brought
about the decline of Buddhism.
Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Jainism
were also practiced.