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Chapter 9: Virtual Memory

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne


Chapter 9: Virtual Memory
 Background
 Demand Paging
 Copy-on-Write
 Page Replacement
 Allocation of Frames
 Thrashing
 Memory-Mapped Files
 Allocating Kernel Memory
 Other Considerations
 Operating-System Examples

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Objectives

 To describe the benefits of a virtual memory


system
 To explain the concepts of demand paging, page-
replacement algorithms, and allocation of page
frames
 To discuss the principle of the working-set model
 To examine the relationship between shared
memory and memory-mapped files
 To explore how kernel memory is managed

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Background
 Logical Address Space
 Physical Address Space
 Given a logical address space of 64 pages, with each
page size of 512 bytes, what is the total size of the
logical address space?
 64 pages×512 bytes per page=32768 bytes=32 KB

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
What is Virtual Memory?
 Provides the user with an illusion of a large main
memory by treating a part of secondary memory as
the main memory.
 Allows loading of larger processes than the available
physical memory by creating the perception of
sufficient memory availability.
 Instead of loading one large process, the operating
system loads different parts of multiple processes
into the main memory.
 This strategy increases the degree of
multiprogramming.
 As a result, CPU utilization is improved due to more
processes being able to run concurrently.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Background
 Code needs to be in memory to execute, but entire
program rarely used
 Error code, unusual routines, large data
structures
 Entire program code not needed at same time
 Consider ability to execute partially-loaded program
 Program no longer constrained by limits of
physical memory
 Each program takes less memory while running ->
more programs run at the same time
 Increased CPU utilization and throughput with
no increase in response time or turnaround
time
 Less I/O needed to load or swap programs into
memory -> each user program runs faster

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
What is Virtual Memory?
 Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory
from physical memory
 Only part of the program needs to be in memory for
execution
 Logical address space can therefore be much larger
than physical address space
 Allows address spaces to be shared by several
processes
 Allows for more efficient process creation
 More programs running concurrently
 Less I/O needed to load or swap processes

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Virtual Memory That is Larger Than Physical Memory

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
What is Virtual Memory?
 The basis of virtual memory is the noncontiguous
memory allocation model.
 The virtual memory manager removes some
components from memory to make room for other
components. (Swapping)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Swapping
 A process can be swapped temporarily out of
memory to a backing store, and then brought back
into memory for continued execution
 Total physical memory space of processes can
exceed physical memory
 Backing store – fast disk large enough to
accommodate copies of all memory images for all
users; must provide direct access to these memory
images
 Roll out, roll in – swapping variant used for priority-
based scheduling algorithms; lower-priority process
is swapped out so higher-priority process can be
loaded and executed
 Major part of swap time is transfer time; total
transfer time is directly proportional to the amount
of memory swapped
 System maintains a ready queue of ready-to-run
processes which have memory images on disk

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Schematic View of Swapping

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Virtual address space
 Virtual address space – logical view of how
process is stored in memory
 Usually start at address 0, contiguous addresses
until end of space
 Meanwhile, physical memory organized in page
frames
 MMU must map logical to physical
 Virtual memory can be implemented via:
 Demand paging
 Demand segmentation

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Virtual-address Space
 Usually design logical address
space for stack to start at Max
logical address and grow “down”
while heap grows “up”
 Maximizes address space
use
 Unused address space
between the two is hole
 No physical memory
needed until heap or
stack grows to a given
new page
 Enables sparse address spaces
with free partitions left for
growth, dynamically linked
libraries, etc
 System libraries shared via
mapping into virtual address
space
 Shared memory by mapping
pages read-write into virtual
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Shared Library Using Virtual Memory

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Virtual Memory Management
 This technique utilizes both hardware and software
components.
 Address Mapping: Maps memory addresses used by a
program, called virtual addresses, into physical
addresses in computer memory.
 Dynamic Translation: All memory references within a
process are logical addresses that are dynamically
translated into physical addresses at run-time.
 Swapping: A process can be swapped in and out of the
main memory, occupying different places at different
times during execution.
 Non-contiguous Allocation: A process may be divided
into multiple pieces that do not need to be
continuously located in the main memory during
execution

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Virtual Memory Management
 Partial Loading: Not all pages or segments need to be
present in the main memory during execution.
 On-Demand Loading: Required pages are loaded into
memory as needed.
 Implemented using Demand Paging or Demand
Segmentation.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Demand Paging/ Lazy Swapping
 Could bring entire process into
memory at load time
 Or bring a page into memory
only when it is needed
 Less I/O needed, no
unnecessary I/O
 Less memory needed
 Faster response
 More users
 Similar to paging system with
swapping (diagram on right)
 Page is needed  reference to it
 invalid reference  abort
 not-in-memory  bring to
memory
 Lazy swapper – never swaps a
page into memory unless page
will be needed
 Swapper that deals with
pages is a pager

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Demand Paging/ Lazy Swapping
 Only a portion of the
program is loaded into RAM
at a time.
 When the loaded portion
needs data not currently in
RAM, that data is loaded as
needed. (Page Fault)
 Reduces the memory
requirement compared to
loading the entire program,
allowing multiple processes
to be loaded into RAM
simultaneously.
 Efficient Multiprogramming
 Lazy swapping can result in
slower program execution
times due to the time taken
for swapping data.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Valid-Invalid Bit
 With each page table entry a valid–invalid bit is
associated
(v  in-memory – memory resident, i  not-in-memory)
 Initially valid–invalid bit is set to i on all entries
 Example of a page table snapshot:

 During MMU address translation, if valid–invalid bit in


page table entry is i  page fault

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Table When Some Pages Are Not in Main Memory

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Fault

 If there is a reference to a page, first reference to


that page will trap to operating system:
page fault
1. Operating system looks at another table to decide:
 Invalid reference  abort
 Just not in memory

2. Find free frame


3. Swap page into frame via scheduled disk operation
4. Reset tables to indicate page now in memory
Set validation bit = v
5. Restart the instruction that caused the page fault

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Steps in Handling a Page Fault

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Aspects of Demand Paging
 Extreme case – start process with no pages in memory
 OS sets instruction pointer to first instruction of
process, non-memory-resident -> page fault
 And for every other process pages on first access
 Pure demand paging
 Actually, a given instruction could access multiple pages
-> multiple page faults
 Consider fetch and decode of instruction which adds
2 numbers from memory and stores result back to
memory
 Hardware support needed for demand paging
 Page table with valid / invalid bit
 Secondary memory (swap device with swap space)
 Instruction restart

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Instruction Restart
 Consider an instruction that could access several
different locations
 block move

 auto increment/decrement location


 Restart the whole operation?
 What if source and destination overlap?

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Performance of Demand Paging
 Stages in Demand Paging (worse case)
1. Trap to the operating system
2. Save the user registers and process state
3. Determine that the interrupt was a page fault
4. Check that the page reference was legal and determine the location of
the page on the disk
5. Issue a read from the disk to a free frame:
1. Wait in a queue for this device until the read request is serviced
2. Wait for the device seek and/or latency time
3. Begin the transfer of the page to a free frame
6. While waiting, allocate the CPU to some other user
7. Receive an interrupt from the disk I/O subsystem (I/O completed)
8. Save the registers and process state for the other user
9. Determine that the interrupt was from the disk
10. Correct the page table and other tables to show page is now in memory
11. Wait for the CPU to be allocated to this process again
12. Restore the user registers, process state, and new page table, and then
resume the interrupted instruction

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Performance of Demand Paging (Cont.)
 Three major activities
 Service the interrupt – careful coding means just several
hundred instructions needed
 Read the page – lots of time
 Restart the process – again just a small amount of time
 Page Fault Rate 0  p  1
 if p = 0 no page faults
 if p = 1, every reference is a fault
 Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 – p) x memory access
+ p (page fault overhead
+ swap page out
+ swap page in )

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Demand Paging Example
 Memory access time = 200 nanoseconds
 Average page-fault service time = 8 milliseconds
 EAT = (1 – p) x 200 + p (8 milliseconds)
= (1 – p x 200 + p x 8,000,000
= 200 + p x 7,999,800
 If one access out of 1,000 causes a page fault, then
EAT = 8.2 microseconds.
This is a slowdown by a factor of 40!!
 If want performance degradation < 10 percent
 220 > 200 + 7,999,800 x p
20 > 7,999,800 x p
 p < .0000025
 < one page fault in every 400,000 memory accesses

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Copy-on-Write
 Copy-on-Write (COW) allows both parent and child processes
to initially share the same pages in memory
 If either process modifies a shared page, only then is the
page copied
 COW allows more efficient process creation as only modified
pages are copied
 In general, free pages are allocated from a pool of zero-fill-
on-demand pages
 Pool should always have free frames for fast demand
page execution
 Don’t want to have to free a frame as well as other
processing on page fault
 Why zero-out a page before allocating it?
 vfork() variation on fork() system call has parent suspend
and child using copy-on-write address space of parent
 Designed to have child call exec()
 Very efficient

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Before Process 1 Modifies Page C

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
After Process 1 Modifies Page C

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
What Happens if There is no Free Frame?

 Used up by process pages


 Also in demand from the kernel, I/O buffers, etc
 How much to allocate to each?
 Page replacement – find some page in memory, but
not really in use, page it out
 Algorithm – terminate? swap out? replace the
page?
 Performance – want an algorithm which will result
in minimum number of page faults
 Same page may be brought into memory several
times

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Replacement

 Prevent over-allocation of memory by modifying


page-fault service routine to include page
replacement
 Use modify (dirty) bit to reduce overhead of
page transfers – only modified pages are
written to disk
 Page replacement completes separation
between logical memory and physical memory
– large virtual memory can be provided on a
smaller physical memory

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Need For Page Replacement

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Basic Page Replacement
1. Find the location of the desired page on disk

2. Find a free frame:


- If there is a free frame, use it
- If there is no free frame, use a page replacement
algorithm to select a victim frame
- Write victim frame to disk if dirty

3. Bring the desired page into the (newly) free frame;


update the page and frame tables

4. Continue the process by restarting the instruction that


caused the trap

Note now potentially 2 page transfers for page fault –


increasing EAT

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Replacement

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page and Frame Replacement Algorithms

 Frame-allocation algorithm determines


 How many frames to give each process
 Which frames to replace
 Page-replacement algorithm
 Want lowest page-fault rate on both first access and
re-access
 Evaluate algorithm by running it on a particular string
of memory references (reference string) and computing
the number of page faults on that string
 String is just page numbers, not full addresses
 Repeated access to the same page does not cause
a page fault
 Results depend on number of frames available
 In all our examples, the reference string of referenced
page numbers is
7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Graph of Page Faults Versus The Number of Frames

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Algorithm
 Reference string:
7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
 3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per
process)

15 page faults

 Can vary by reference string: consider


1,2,3,4,1,2,5,1,2,3,4,5
 Adding more frames can cause more page faults!
 Belady’s Anomaly

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
FIFO Illustrating Belady’s Anomaly

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Algorithm
 Reference string:
7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
 3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per
process)

15 page faults

=5/(5+15)*100
Hit Ratio Formula
=500/20= 25%
The Ratio of Page Hit to the Page Fault =5/15 = 0.33

The Page Fault Percentage = 100 - Page Hit Percentage


= 100-25=75%

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
FIFO Page Replacement

Given the following page reference string: 4, 3, 2, 1, 4, 3, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 5


Number of frames: 3
Question: Find the number of page faults using the FIFO Page Replacement

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Optimal Algorithm
 Replace page that will not be used for longest period of time
 9 is optimal for the example
 How do you know this?
 Can’t read the future
 Used for measuring how well your algorithm performs

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
 3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Optimal Page Replacement

Given the following page reference string: 4, 3, 2, 1, 4, 3, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 5


Number of frames: 3
Question: Find the number of page faults using the Optimal Page Replacement

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm
 Use past knowledge rather than future
 Replace page that has not been used in the most
amount of time
 Associate time of last use with each page

 12 faults – better than FIFO but worse than OPT


 Generally good algorithm and frequently used
 But how to implement?

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
 3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
LRU Algorithm (Cont.)
 Counter implementation
 Every page entry has a counter; every time page is
referenced through this entry, copy the clock into
the counter
 When a page needs to be changed, look at the
counters to find smallest value
 Search through table needed
 Stack implementation
 Keep a stack of page numbers in a double link form:
 Page referenced:
 move it to the top
 requires 6 pointers to be changed
 But each update more expensive
 No search for replacement
 LRU and OPT are cases of stack algorithms that don’t
have Belady’s Anomaly

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
LRU Page Replacement

Given the following page reference string: 4, 3, 2, 1, 4, 3, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 5


Number of frames: 3
Question: Find the number of page faults using the LRU Page Replacement

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Replacement

Given the following page reference string

Number of frames: 3

Question: Find the number of page faults using the


FIFO Page Replacement
Optimal Page replacement
LRU Page Replacement

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Replacement

Given the following page reference string

Number of frames: 4

Question: Find the number of page faults using the


FIFO Page Replacement
Optimal Page replacement
LRU Page Replacement

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.51 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Replacement

Given the following page reference string

Number of frames: 3

Question: Find the number of page faults using the


FIFO Page Replacement
Optimal Page replacement
LRU Page Replacement

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Replacement

Consider the reference string 6, 1, 1, 2, 0, 3, 4, 6, 0, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 0, 3, 2, 1, 2, 0

Number of frames: 3

Question: Find the number of page faults using the


FIFO Page Replacement
Optimal Page replacement
LRU Page Replacement

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Counting Algorithms
 Keep a counter of the number of references that have
been made to each page
 Not common
Lease Frequently Used (LFU) Algorithm: replaces
page with smallest count

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
LFU Example
 Keep a counter of the number of references that have
been made to each page
 Not common
Lease Frequently Used (LFU) Algorithm: replaces
page with smallest count

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.55 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Counting Algorithms
 Keep a counter of the number of references that have
been made to each page
 Not common
Lease Frequently Used (LFU) Algorithm: replaces
page with smallest count

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Counting Algorithms
 Most Frequently Used (MFU) Algorithm: based on the
argument that the page with the smallest count was
probably just brought in and has yet to be used

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
LRU Approximation Algorithms
 LRU needs special hardware and still slow
 Reference bit
 With each page associate a bit, initially = 0
 When page is referenced bit set to 1
 Replace any with reference bit = 0 (if one exists)
 We do not know the order, however
 Second-chance algorithm
 Generally FIFO, plus hardware-provided reference
bit
 Clock replacement
 If page to be replaced has
 Reference bit = 0 -> replace it
 reference bit = 1 then:
– set reference bit 0, leave page in memory
– replace next page, subject to same rules

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Second-Chance (clock) Page-Replacement Algorithm

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.59 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Thrashing
 If a process does not have “enough” pages, the page-
fault rate is very high
 Page fault to get page
 Replace existing frame
 But quickly need replaced frame back
 This leads to:
 Low CPU utilization
 Operating system thinking that it needs to
increase the degree of multiprogramming
 Another process added to the system

 Thrashing  a process is busy swapping pages in and


out

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.60 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Thrashing (Cont.)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
References

 Modern Operating Systems Ed: 4 Author: Tanenbaum


Publisher: Prentice-Hall, Inc. ISBN-10: 013359162X
 Abraham Silberschatz, Peter Baer Galvin and Greg Gagne,
“Operating System Concepts”, Ninth Edition, John Wiley & Sons
(ASIA) Pvt. Ltd
 https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/
 https://www.javatpoint.com/
 https://www.gatevidyalay.com/

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.62 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
End of Chapter 9

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

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