Topic6 Virtual Memory
Topic6 Virtual Memory
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Objectives
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.3 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Background
Logical Address Space
Physical Address Space
Given a logical address space of 64 pages, with each
page size of 512 bytes, what is the total size of the
logical address space?
64 pages×512 bytes per page=32768 bytes=32 KB
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
What is Virtual Memory?
Provides the user with an illusion of a large main
memory by treating a part of secondary memory as
the main memory.
Allows loading of larger processes than the available
physical memory by creating the perception of
sufficient memory availability.
Instead of loading one large process, the operating
system loads different parts of multiple processes
into the main memory.
This strategy increases the degree of
multiprogramming.
As a result, CPU utilization is improved due to more
processes being able to run concurrently.
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Background
Code needs to be in memory to execute, but entire
program rarely used
Error code, unusual routines, large data
structures
Entire program code not needed at same time
Consider ability to execute partially-loaded program
Program no longer constrained by limits of
physical memory
Each program takes less memory while running ->
more programs run at the same time
Increased CPU utilization and throughput with
no increase in response time or turnaround
time
Less I/O needed to load or swap programs into
memory -> each user program runs faster
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
What is Virtual Memory?
Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory
from physical memory
Only part of the program needs to be in memory for
execution
Logical address space can therefore be much larger
than physical address space
Allows address spaces to be shared by several
processes
Allows for more efficient process creation
More programs running concurrently
Less I/O needed to load or swap processes
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Virtual Memory That is Larger Than Physical Memory
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
What is Virtual Memory?
The basis of virtual memory is the noncontiguous
memory allocation model.
The virtual memory manager removes some
components from memory to make room for other
components. (Swapping)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Swapping
A process can be swapped temporarily out of
memory to a backing store, and then brought back
into memory for continued execution
Total physical memory space of processes can
exceed physical memory
Backing store – fast disk large enough to
accommodate copies of all memory images for all
users; must provide direct access to these memory
images
Roll out, roll in – swapping variant used for priority-
based scheduling algorithms; lower-priority process
is swapped out so higher-priority process can be
loaded and executed
Major part of swap time is transfer time; total
transfer time is directly proportional to the amount
of memory swapped
System maintains a ready queue of ready-to-run
processes which have memory images on disk
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Schematic View of Swapping
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Virtual address space
Virtual address space – logical view of how
process is stored in memory
Usually start at address 0, contiguous addresses
until end of space
Meanwhile, physical memory organized in page
frames
MMU must map logical to physical
Virtual memory can be implemented via:
Demand paging
Demand segmentation
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Virtual-address Space
Usually design logical address
space for stack to start at Max
logical address and grow “down”
while heap grows “up”
Maximizes address space
use
Unused address space
between the two is hole
No physical memory
needed until heap or
stack grows to a given
new page
Enables sparse address spaces
with free partitions left for
growth, dynamically linked
libraries, etc
System libraries shared via
mapping into virtual address
space
Shared memory by mapping
pages read-write into virtual
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Shared Library Using Virtual Memory
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Virtual Memory Management
This technique utilizes both hardware and software
components.
Address Mapping: Maps memory addresses used by a
program, called virtual addresses, into physical
addresses in computer memory.
Dynamic Translation: All memory references within a
process are logical addresses that are dynamically
translated into physical addresses at run-time.
Swapping: A process can be swapped in and out of the
main memory, occupying different places at different
times during execution.
Non-contiguous Allocation: A process may be divided
into multiple pieces that do not need to be
continuously located in the main memory during
execution
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Virtual Memory Management
Partial Loading: Not all pages or segments need to be
present in the main memory during execution.
On-Demand Loading: Required pages are loaded into
memory as needed.
Implemented using Demand Paging or Demand
Segmentation.
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Demand Paging/ Lazy Swapping
Could bring entire process into
memory at load time
Or bring a page into memory
only when it is needed
Less I/O needed, no
unnecessary I/O
Less memory needed
Faster response
More users
Similar to paging system with
swapping (diagram on right)
Page is needed reference to it
invalid reference abort
not-in-memory bring to
memory
Lazy swapper – never swaps a
page into memory unless page
will be needed
Swapper that deals with
pages is a pager
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Demand Paging/ Lazy Swapping
Only a portion of the
program is loaded into RAM
at a time.
When the loaded portion
needs data not currently in
RAM, that data is loaded as
needed. (Page Fault)
Reduces the memory
requirement compared to
loading the entire program,
allowing multiple processes
to be loaded into RAM
simultaneously.
Efficient Multiprogramming
Lazy swapping can result in
slower program execution
times due to the time taken
for swapping data.
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Valid-Invalid Bit
With each page table entry a valid–invalid bit is
associated
(v in-memory – memory resident, i not-in-memory)
Initially valid–invalid bit is set to i on all entries
Example of a page table snapshot:
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Table When Some Pages Are Not in Main Memory
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Fault
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Steps in Handling a Page Fault
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Aspects of Demand Paging
Extreme case – start process with no pages in memory
OS sets instruction pointer to first instruction of
process, non-memory-resident -> page fault
And for every other process pages on first access
Pure demand paging
Actually, a given instruction could access multiple pages
-> multiple page faults
Consider fetch and decode of instruction which adds
2 numbers from memory and stores result back to
memory
Hardware support needed for demand paging
Page table with valid / invalid bit
Secondary memory (swap device with swap space)
Instruction restart
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Instruction Restart
Consider an instruction that could access several
different locations
block move
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Performance of Demand Paging
Stages in Demand Paging (worse case)
1. Trap to the operating system
2. Save the user registers and process state
3. Determine that the interrupt was a page fault
4. Check that the page reference was legal and determine the location of
the page on the disk
5. Issue a read from the disk to a free frame:
1. Wait in a queue for this device until the read request is serviced
2. Wait for the device seek and/or latency time
3. Begin the transfer of the page to a free frame
6. While waiting, allocate the CPU to some other user
7. Receive an interrupt from the disk I/O subsystem (I/O completed)
8. Save the registers and process state for the other user
9. Determine that the interrupt was from the disk
10. Correct the page table and other tables to show page is now in memory
11. Wait for the CPU to be allocated to this process again
12. Restore the user registers, process state, and new page table, and then
resume the interrupted instruction
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Performance of Demand Paging (Cont.)
Three major activities
Service the interrupt – careful coding means just several
hundred instructions needed
Read the page – lots of time
Restart the process – again just a small amount of time
Page Fault Rate 0 p 1
if p = 0 no page faults
if p = 1, every reference is a fault
Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 – p) x memory access
+ p (page fault overhead
+ swap page out
+ swap page in )
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Demand Paging Example
Memory access time = 200 nanoseconds
Average page-fault service time = 8 milliseconds
EAT = (1 – p) x 200 + p (8 milliseconds)
= (1 – p x 200 + p x 8,000,000
= 200 + p x 7,999,800
If one access out of 1,000 causes a page fault, then
EAT = 8.2 microseconds.
This is a slowdown by a factor of 40!!
If want performance degradation < 10 percent
220 > 200 + 7,999,800 x p
20 > 7,999,800 x p
p < .0000025
< one page fault in every 400,000 memory accesses
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Copy-on-Write
Copy-on-Write (COW) allows both parent and child processes
to initially share the same pages in memory
If either process modifies a shared page, only then is the
page copied
COW allows more efficient process creation as only modified
pages are copied
In general, free pages are allocated from a pool of zero-fill-
on-demand pages
Pool should always have free frames for fast demand
page execution
Don’t want to have to free a frame as well as other
processing on page fault
Why zero-out a page before allocating it?
vfork() variation on fork() system call has parent suspend
and child using copy-on-write address space of parent
Designed to have child call exec()
Very efficient
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Before Process 1 Modifies Page C
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
After Process 1 Modifies Page C
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
What Happens if There is no Free Frame?
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Replacement
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.32 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Need For Page Replacement
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Basic Page Replacement
1. Find the location of the desired page on disk
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Replacement
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page and Frame Replacement Algorithms
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Graph of Page Faults Versus The Number of Frames
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Algorithm
Reference string:
7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per
process)
15 page faults
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
FIFO Illustrating Belady’s Anomaly
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
First-In-First-Out (FIFO) Algorithm
Reference string:
7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per
process)
15 page faults
=5/(5+15)*100
Hit Ratio Formula
=500/20= 25%
The Ratio of Page Hit to the Page Fault =5/15 = 0.33
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
FIFO Page Replacement
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Optimal Algorithm
Replace page that will not be used for longest period of time
9 is optimal for the example
How do you know this?
Can’t read the future
Used for measuring how well your algorithm performs
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Optimal Page Replacement
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Least Recently Used (LRU) Algorithm
Use past knowledge rather than future
Replace page that has not been used in the most
amount of time
Associate time of last use with each page
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
3 frames (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
LRU Algorithm (Cont.)
Counter implementation
Every page entry has a counter; every time page is
referenced through this entry, copy the clock into
the counter
When a page needs to be changed, look at the
counters to find smallest value
Search through table needed
Stack implementation
Keep a stack of page numbers in a double link form:
Page referenced:
move it to the top
requires 6 pointers to be changed
But each update more expensive
No search for replacement
LRU and OPT are cases of stack algorithms that don’t
have Belady’s Anomaly
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
LRU Page Replacement
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Replacement
Number of frames: 3
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Replacement
Number of frames: 4
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.51 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Replacement
Number of frames: 3
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Page Replacement
Number of frames: 3
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Counting Algorithms
Keep a counter of the number of references that have
been made to each page
Not common
Lease Frequently Used (LFU) Algorithm: replaces
page with smallest count
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
LFU Example
Keep a counter of the number of references that have
been made to each page
Not common
Lease Frequently Used (LFU) Algorithm: replaces
page with smallest count
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.55 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Counting Algorithms
Keep a counter of the number of references that have
been made to each page
Not common
Lease Frequently Used (LFU) Algorithm: replaces
page with smallest count
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Counting Algorithms
Most Frequently Used (MFU) Algorithm: based on the
argument that the page with the smallest count was
probably just brought in and has yet to be used
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
LRU Approximation Algorithms
LRU needs special hardware and still slow
Reference bit
With each page associate a bit, initially = 0
When page is referenced bit set to 1
Replace any with reference bit = 0 (if one exists)
We do not know the order, however
Second-chance algorithm
Generally FIFO, plus hardware-provided reference
bit
Clock replacement
If page to be replaced has
Reference bit = 0 -> replace it
reference bit = 1 then:
– set reference bit 0, leave page in memory
– replace next page, subject to same rules
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Second-Chance (clock) Page-Replacement Algorithm
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.59 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Thrashing
If a process does not have “enough” pages, the page-
fault rate is very high
Page fault to get page
Replace existing frame
But quickly need replaced frame back
This leads to:
Low CPU utilization
Operating system thinking that it needs to
increase the degree of multiprogramming
Another process added to the system
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.60 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
Thrashing (Cont.)
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
References
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 9.62 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
End of Chapter 9