DAMS

DAM

Reservoir

Penstock
Dam:
It is a barrier (natural or artificial) constructed across a
flowing water to create a reservoir for impounding water, or to
facilitate of water from the river, or to retain debris flowing in
the river along with water.
The first and main function is to store water to
compensate for fluctuations in river flow or in demand for
water and energy.
The second to raise the level of the water upstream to enable
water to be diverted into a canal or to increase ’hydraulic head’
Types of Dams:
Dams are mainly classified based on various aspects
like
 Function

 Hydraulic design

 Material of construction

 Structural design

 Size
Classification based on FUNCTION:
Based on this parameter, dams are classified as

Storage dams or Impounding dams

Detention dams

Diversion dams

Coffer dams

Debris dams
Classification based on HYDRAULIC DESIGN:
Based on this parameter, dams are classified as

Overflow dam or Overfall dam

Non – overflow dams

In most of the cases a part of the length is
designed as an overflow dam, while rest of the portion
is designed as non – overflow dam.
Classification based on MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION:
Based on this parameter, dams are classified as

Rigid dam

Non – rigid dams

Classification based on STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR:
Based on this parameter, dams are classified as

Gravity dam

Arch dam

Buttress dam

Embankment dam
Classification based on SIZE:
Based on this parameter, dams are classified as

Small – 7.5 m to 12.00 m – 0.5 to 10 Mm 3

Intermediate – 12.00 to 30.00 m – 10 to 60 Mm 3

Large - > 30.00 m - > 60 Mm3

Factors effecting selection of type of dam

It is necessary to prepare preliminary designs and

estimates for the several types of dams before one should
construct.
The over all cost, benefits and other factors are to be
considered while choosing the selection of type of dam.
Following are some of the factors to be considered
while selecting the type of dam to be constructed
1. Topography – Valley shape
2. Geology and foundation
conditions
3. Availability of construction
materials
4. Spillway size and location
5. Environmental conditions
6. Earthquake zone
7. Overall cost
Topography – Valley shape:
Topographical studies indicate the nature of
valley or gorge. The shape of valleys normally found in nature
to be broadly classified as three types.
a. A narrow – V shaped valley with sound rock foundation is
best suited for arch dam. It is mostly preferred to have top
width of the valley less than about four times its height
b. A narrow or moderately wide U – shaped with sound rock
foundation is best suited for gravity or buttress dam
c. A wide valley with soil as foundation for embankment dams
Geology and foundation condition:
All the forces acting on the dam are to be
transmitted to foundations. Hence the foundation conditions
will enable to choose the type of the dam to be constructed.
These foundation conditions in turn depends
upon the geological characteristics of soil such as, thickness of
the strata, their inclination, permeability and relation to
underlying strata, existing faults and fissures. Also it in turn
depends on the combination of different types of soils.
Availability of construction materials:
The type of dam to be constructed depends on
the nature of materials that are readily available locally to the
near by dam site.
This is mainly due to economic considerations
in reduction of transport for the materials like aggregates, sand
etc.
Spillway size and location:
It is the structure provided for a dam to pass
excess of flood water which a reservoir cannot store. Its size
and location are mainly depending on the magnitude of flood
to be bypassed.
The choice of type of dam is effected by its
size, type location of spillway.
An overflow type of spillway suited for
concrete or masonry type of dams, while the others are
associated with earth and rock fill dams.
Environmental considerations:
The selection of type of dam, its dimensions
and location of spillway should not effect the surrounding
environments to maximum possible extent
Earthquake Zone:
The type of the dam to be constructed should
not experience any type of shocks in the earths crust.
Although by including the provisions for the
added loading due to earthquake in the design any type of the
dam may be adopted in these areas, but earth fill and concrete
gravity dams are best suited in this aspect
Cost:
The cost of construction of dam is mainly
effected by the availability and price of construction materials
and labor.
For example, if the choice is between gravity
and buttress dam, as concrete required is less for buttress dam
but the cost for providing special form work and
reinforcement required for buttress dam is more and to be
considered in estimate part.
Requirements of a good Dam site:
1. Suitable foundation should be available
2. The river cross section should be preferably a narrow gorge
to reduce the length of the dam and should open out
upstream to form a large basin, The valley and the abutment
slopes should be stable.
3. There should be another good site for locating the spillway
particularly when earth dams are to be constructed. If the
spillway is to be located in the main river portion the width
of the gorge should be sufficient to accommodate the
spillway length. There should be good location for the
power house where required.
4. The materials required for the construction should be
available in sufficient quantities in the vicinity of the site.
5. The required storage capacity of the reservoir should be
available by constructing a dam of reasonable height at a
minimum cost.
6. The cost of land submerged should be low in comparison
with the return expected.
7. The overall cost of construction and maintain should be as
small as possible.
8. Immediately on the U/S of the dam site there should be a
watertight rim for the reservoir formed by the surrounding
hills upto the proposed elevation of the dam.
9. As far as possible the dam should be located on high ground
as compared to the river basin. This will reduce the cost and
facilitate drainage of the dam selection.
The forces acting on the dam can be categorized by two groups:
1.Restoring force - Weight
2.Overturning Forces - Others
1. Restoring force - Weight:
Which can be calculated precisely by knowing the proportions of
materials.
• Weight of the dam – (w) -

• Horizontal water pressure (ph) and Weight of water (ww)

• Horizontal & Vertical Reactions of foundations (Rh) & (Rv)

2. Overturning Forces - Others:

Which can be determined by approximation or

based on experience and judgment, which depend upon the
disposition of material and precautions taken to reduce their
effect.
• Uplift Pressure force (V)
• Wave Pressure force (Pw)

• Earthquake forces (pq)

• Ice Pressure force (pi)

• Wind Pressure (pd)

• Silt Pressure (ps)

1. Weight of the dam per meter length of dam:
w = Density X Volume
= γ X Area of C/S X 1 m Length
= γA
‘w’ can be split up to w1, w2, … w5.
These forces are assumed to act at C G of the area.
Where γ = 2.4 t / m3 for masonry or Concrete
2. Horizontal Water Pressure:

Ph = ½ X γ X h

= ½ γh2
Acting at the centroid of the pressure Diagram
(i.e.,.) h/3 from base
4. Uplift force:
Uplift is defined as the upward pressure of water as it flows or
seeps through the body of the dam or its foundation.
A portion of the weight of dam will be supported on the
upward pressure of water.
If area factor is ‘c’ & intensity factor is ‘ ’ (Zeta) then,
Total Uplift pressure (u) can be expressed as

 c [bh 2 + 1 b ( h1   h 2)]
2
 u = cb[h 2  1  (h  h )]
2
1 2

if h2 = 0 (i.e.,) if there is no tail water

 u = cb 1  h
2
5. Wave pressure force:

Depends upon the height of the wave which in turn depends

upon the wind velocity and fetch of the reservoir
hw = height of wave in meter is given by

= 0.00322 Vfor
.F F > 32 km
hw = 0.0322 V .F + 0.762 - 0.2714 F
Where V = wind velocity in Km / hour & F = Fetch in Km

Maximum intensity of splash

water pressure which is
given to be = 2.4 w hw

@ 1/8 hw from still

water surface
 DIAGRAM – 9

pw = Wave pressure force

1 X 2.4 X  X hw X 5 X hw
2 3
 2  h2w

acting at the centroid of the pressure triangle acting at

3/8 hw above still water level
6. Earthquake Force:
Based upon sensation of people and damage caused.
Rossi - Farel classified the earthquake into ten groups.
Later on MERCALL, WOODLAND and NUERMAN raised the
groups and classified earthquakes into twelve categories
however this scale has no reference regarding a rational
measure.
So RICHSTER classified earthquakes based on the displacements,
resulting from earthquakes.
The earthquake energy is proportional to the displacement.
if m = Magnitude of earthquake then,
m = log10 a + c
Where a = displacement & c = Constant.
Energy ‘E’ in ergs is given by,
E = 5. 8 + 2.4 m
Rossi – Farel scale magnitudes up to shock no. 6 are not
important for structural analysis.
Shock No. 7:

They are strong shocks characterized by overthrow

valuable objects fall of plaster from swinging church general
panic and non real damage.

Earthquake acceleration to be allowed for 0.02g to

0.05g
Shock No. 8:
Very strong shocks characterized by creating of walls
breaking of chimneys shuttering and buildings and slight cracks in
the ground.
Earthquake acceleration 0.05g to 0.1g
Shock No. 9:
Extremely strong shocks characterized by shuttering and up
roofing of the buildings and trees and land slide and large cracks in
the ground.
Earthquake acceleration to be allowed 0.1g to 0.2g
Shock No. 10:
Exceptional shocks characterized by general destruction rock
fill and total destruction of area and large openings in the ground
Marecelli scale

Intensity Acceleration Name of the shock and effects

produced in mm/sec2
I <10 Instrumental, recorded by only
seismographs
II >10 Pebble shock, felt by only
sensitive people
III >25 Slight shock, commonly felt
by people at nest
IV >50 Moderate strong shock,
commonly felt by all the
people in the area
Marecelli scale (Contd.,)

Intensity Acceleration Name of the shock and effects

produced in mm/sec2

V >100 Fairly strong shock,

considerable amount of
vibrations which wakes up
peak sleep and causes
swinging up church bells
VI >250 The strong shock, minor
damage to the buildings
particularly their overhanging
and projecting parts
VII >500 Very strong shock
Marecelli scale (Contd.,)

Intensity Acceleration Name of the shock and effects

produced in mm/sec2
VIII >1000 The destructive shock, causes
greater damage to the buildings
overthrowing of overhanging and
projecting portions such as
chimneys etc
IX >2500 Ruinous shocks gives general
damage to the building involving
this overturning. Underground
pipes will be broken
X >5000 Disastrous shocks, severe
distruction of buildings well built
wooden structures
Marecelli scale (Contd.,)

Intensity Acceleration Name of the shock and effects

produced in mm/sec2
XI >7500 Very disasters shocks severs
distruction of buildings and
landslides lan of earth
XII >9800 Catastrophic shock;
distruction of all buildings and
large cracks in the ground.
Marecelli’s groups:

I, II, III --- 3.5 – 4.2

IV, V --- 4.3
V, VI --- 4.8
VI, VII, VIII --- 4.9 – 6.1
VIII, IX, X --- 6.2 - 6.9
IX, X --- 7.0 – 8.9

Earthquakes of Reichter’s magnitudes less

than 5 is of no engineering *******.
q is the acceleration of the structure
DIAGRAM – 10
6. Earthquake Force: (Contd.,)
1. Inertia force (pi) = αw
α - Co- efficient of acceleration
w - Weight
2. Mobility of water:
Westergard assumed parabolic variations of
water due to earthquake.

DIAGRAM – 11
peh = 2 X c e X  X h X y 3/2
3
 = Co-efficient of earthquake accelaration
h = Total depth of water retained
y = Level of the depth at which the effect is considered
0.816
ce =
h 2
1  0.72( )
305t
t = Period of earthquake in seconds
p eh is assumed to act at 2 of y
5
M eh = 4 ************
5
Moment about the base = 4 c e X h X y 3/ 2
15
DIAGRAM – 12
C. N. Zangar
Elliptic – parabolic variation
consider the water pressurepeh = c  wh

DIAGRAM – 13
Total water pressure p eh = 0.726 c  w h y
where h = Total depth of water retained
 0.726 X ce X y
where ce = c X wh
If Moment of horizontal water pressure force about the base
M eh = 0.299 X ce X y 2
c = co-efficient defined by
cm y y y y 
c=  (2  )  (2  ) 
2 h h h h 

where c m is given by 0.735
90
where  is the inclination of water fae with horizontal
7. Ice pressure
Due to sudden fall in temperature of reservoir water in
water in reservoir solidifies.
Ice pressure force depends upon
The rate of change of temperature
Thickness of ice
The fixity (rigidity) of the dam and the embankment material.
Depending upon the rate of change of temperature ice
pressure exerted in t/m2 per hour.

DIAGRAM – 14
Rate of change of temperature Ice pressure per unit
(0F) per hour thickness in (t/m2) per hour
1 0.30
2 0.60
3 0.90
4 1.20
5 1.70
6 2.20
7 2.88
8 3.66
9 4.65
10 6.00