HUMAN ENDOCRINE AND

EXOCRINE SYSTEM

Dr. B. Suresh Chander Kapali,

Assistant Professor,
Department of Biomedical Engineering,
Easwari Engineering College
 OVERVIEW

• WHAT IS ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

• DIFFERENT ENDOCRINE GLANDS
• FUNCTIONS AND REGULATION OF ENDOCRINE GLANDS
• WHAT IS EXOCRINE GLANDS
• DIFFERENT EXOCRINE GLANDS
• FUNCTIONS AND REGULATION OF EXOCRINE GLANDS
 WHAT IS ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
• Endocrine system is a chemical messenger system
comprising feedback loops of the hormones.
• Released by internal glands of an organism directly into
the circulatory system.
• Regulating distant target organs
• They are ductless glands
 DIFFERENT ENDOCRINE GLANDS

• The major glands of the endocrine system are:

1. Pineal Gland
2. Pituitary Gland
3. Thyroid Gland
4. Parathyroid Gland
5. Adrenal Glands.
6. Pancreas
7. Ovaries
8. Testes
 PINEAL GLAND

• Pineal gland produces melatonin, a serotonin

derived hormone which modulates sleep
patterns in both circadian and seasonal cycles.
• Melatonin production is stimulated by
darkness and inhibited by light
• The shape of the gland resembles a pine cone
• Pineal gland is located in the epithalamus, near
the centre of the brain, between the
two hemispheres, tucked in a groove where
the two halves of the thalamus join
 PINEAL GLAND CONT.….
• Pineal gland is one of the neuroendocrine secretory
circumventricular organs in which capillaries are
mostly permeable to solutes
• Pineal glands regulates the pituitary gland and bone metabolism.
 PITUITARY GLAND
• The size of a pea and weighing 0.5
grams in humans.
• Protrusion off the bottom of
the hypothalamus at the base of
the brain.
• The anterior pituitary or
adenohypophysis is a lobe of the gland
that regulates several physiological
processes
• Posterior pituitary or neurohypophysis
is a lobe of the gland that is functionally
connected to the hypothalamus
 PITUITARY GLAND CONT.…
• Anterior lobe of the pituitary can be
divided into the
1. Pars Tuberalis: anterior lobe of
the pituitary gland, and wraps the pituitary
stalk in a highly vascularized sheath.
2. Pars Distalis: a major organ of the
endocrine system, the anterior pituitary is the
glandular, anterior lobe that together with the
posterior lobe makes up the pituitary gland.
3. Pars Intermedia: the pars
intermedia sits between the pars distalis and
the posterior pituitary, forming the boundary
between the anterior and posterior pituitaries.
 ANTERIOR PITUITARY
• The anterior pituitary contains several different types of cells [ that
synthesize and secrete hormones.
• 5 types of cells can be differentiated.
1. Somatotropes - Human Growth Hormone
2. Corticotropes - Adrenocorticotropic Hormone & Corticotropin
Releasing Hormone
3. Thyrotropes - Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone & Thyrotropin-
Releasing Hormone
4. Gonadotropes - Luteinizing Hormone & Follicle-Stimulating
Hormone
5. Lactotropes - Prolactin
 HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE
• Growth hormone is a protein hormone of about 190 amino acids that is
synthesized and secreted by cells called somatotrophs in the anterior
pituitary.
• Major participant in control of several complex physiologic processes,
including growth and metabolism.
Hypo-secretion of Growth Hormone:
• Growth hormone deficiency also known as dwarfism or pituitary dwarfism
• Condition caused by insufficient amounts of growth hormone in the body.
• Children with GHD have abnormally short stature with normal body
proportions.
• GHD can be present at birth or develop later .
• Condition occurs if the pituitary gland makes too little growth hormone.
• Result of genetic defects, severe brain injury or being born without a
 HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE CONT.…

Hyper-secretion of growth hormone:

• Gigantism also known as giantism, is a condition characterized by
excessive growth and height significantly above average.
• Condition is caused due to over-production of growth hormone in
childhood, resulting in people of 7 to 9 ft.
• Specific age of onset for gigantism varies between patients and gender.
• Common age that excessive growth symptoms start to appear has been
found to be around 13 years
 HUMAN GROWTH HORMONE CONT.…
• Acromegaly is a hormonal disorder that develops when your
pituitary gland produces too much growth hormone during
adulthood.
• Bones increase in size, including those of your hands, feet and face.
• Acromegaly usually affects middle-aged adults.
• A common sign of acromegaly is enlarged hands and feet
• Acromegaly may also cause gradual changes in the shape of your
face, such as a protruding lower jaw and brow, an enlarged nose,
thickened lips, and wider spacing between your teeth.
 OTHER HORMONES OF ANTERIOR
PITUITARY
Thyroid-stimulating Hormone :
• TSH is necessary for the growth and secretory activity of the
thyroid gland.
• Has many actions on the thyroid gland. Adrenocorticotropic
Hormone :
• ACTH is necessary for the structural integrity and the secretory
activity of adrenal cortex.

Follicle-stimulating Hormone:
• Follicle-stimulating hormone is a glycoprotein made up of one α-
subunit and a β-subunit.
OTHER HORMONES OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY
CONT…

• In males FSH acts along with testosterone and accelerates

the process of spermeogenesis

• In females FSH causes the development of graafian follicle

from primordial follicle.

• Stimulates the theca cells of graafian follicle and causes

secretion of estrogen

• Luteinizing Hormone (LH) LH is a glycoprotein made up

of one α-subunit and one β-subunit.

• In males, LH is known as interstitial cell-stimulating

OTHER HORMONES OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY
CONT…

• In males LH is known as interstitial cell-stimulating

hormone (ICSH) because it stimulates the interstitial cells
of Leydig in testes
• In females, LH causes maturation of vesicular follicle into
graafian follicle along with follicle-stimulating hormone
• Is responsible for ovulation
• Is necessary for the formation of corpus luteum
• Prolactin acts directly on the epithelial cells of mammary
glands and causes localized
 POSTERIOR PITUITARY OR
NEUROHYPOPHYSIS
• Posterior pituitary consists of three parts:

1. Pars nervosa or infundibular process

2. Neural stalk or infundibular stem

3. Median eminence.

• Posterior pituitary hormones are:

1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) or vasopressin

2. Oxytocin.
 POSTERIOR PITUITARY OR
NEUROHYPOPHYSIS CONT….
• Posterior pituitary does not secrete any hormone.

• ADH and oxytocin are synthesized in the hypothalamus.

• From hypothalamus, these two hormones are transported to

the posterior pituitary through the nerve fibers of
hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract

Antidiuretic Hormone:

• Antidiuretic hormone has two actions:

1. Retention of water

2. Vasopressor action.
 POSTERIOR PITUITARY OR NEUROHYPOPHYSIS
CONT….

• Major function of ADH is retention of water by acting on

kidneys. It increases the facultative reabsorption of water
from distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct in the
kidneys

• Vasopressor action In large amount, ADH shows

vasoconstrictor action. Particularly, causes constriction of
the arteries in all parts of the body. Due to vasoconstriction,
the blood pressure increases.
 POSTERIOR PITUITARY OR NEUROHYPOPHYSIS
CONT….

Oxytocin:
• In females oxytocin acts on mammary glands for the
ejection of milk
• Oxytocin acts on uterus causes cervix dilates and the fetus
descends through the birth canal
• Contraction of uterus and helps in the expulsion of fetus
• Action of oxytocin on non-pregnant uterus is to facilitate
the transport of sperms through female genital tract up to
the fallopian tube by producing the uterine contraction
during sexual intercourse
 POSTERIOR PITUITARY OR NEUROHYPOPHYSIS
CONT….
• In males the release of oxytocin increases during ejaculation.
• Facilitates release of sperm into urethra by causing contraction of
smooth muscle fibers in reproductive tract, particularly vas deferens.
 Thyroid Gland
• Thyroid gland, is an endocrine gland.
• Present in neck consisting of two
connected lobes.
• Lower two thirds of the lobes are connected by
a thin band of tissue called the thyroid isthmus.
• The thyroid gland secretes three hormones: the
two thyroid hormones (triiodothyronine
(T3) and thyroxine (T4)) and calcitonin
• Thyroxine and it forms about 90% of the total
secretion, whereas T3 is only 9% to 10%.
• Thyroid hormones have two major effects on
the body:
1. To increase basal metabolic rate.
2. To stimulate growth in children.
ABNORMAL SECRETION OF THYROID
HORMONES
Hyperthyroidism:
• Increased secretion of thyroid hormones is called hyperthyroidism.
• Hyperthyroidism Leads to :
1. Graves’ disease - Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disease
and it is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism.
• Normally TSH combines with surface receptors of thyroid cells and
causes the synthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones
• Graves’ disease, the B lymphocytes (plasma cells) produce
autoimmune antibodies called thyroid-stimulating autoantibodies
2. Thyroid adenoma- localized tumor develops in the thyroid
tissue. It is known as thyroid adenoma and it secretes large quantities of
thyroid hormone
ABNORMAL SECRETION OF THYROID
HORMONES CONT.….
Hypothyroidism:
• Decreased secretion of thyroid hormones is called hypothyroidism.
• Hypothyroidism leads to
1. Myxedema in adults - Myxedema occurs due to diseases
of thyroid gland, genetic disorder or iodine deficiency, also caused by
deficiency of thyroid-stimulating hormone
2. Cretinism in children - occurs due to congenital absence
of thyroid gland, genetic disorder or lack of iodine in the diet.
• Newborn baby with thyroid deficiency may appear normal at the
time of birth because thyroxine might have been supplied from
mother
• Unless treated immediately, the baby will be mentally retarded
permanently.
 ABNORMAL SECRETION OF THYROID
HORMONES CONT.….

• Secretion of the two thyroid hormones is regulated by thyroid-stimulating

hormone (TSH), which is secreted from the anterior pituitary gland
• TSH is regulated by thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), which is
produced by the hypothalamus
• Thyroid hormones are created from iodine and tyrosine.
• T3 is so named because it contains three atoms of iodine per molecule
• T4 contains four atoms of iodine per molecule
Calcitonin:
• Calcitonin plays a role in calcium homeostasis. in children, growth and
development
• Calcitonin is secreted by the parafollicular cells or clear cells (C cells),
situated amongst the follicles in thyroid gland.
 GOITER

• Goiter means enlargement of the thyroid gland. It occurs both in

hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism.

Goiter in Hyperthyroidism:

• Toxic Goiter – Toxic goiter is the enlargement of thyroid gland with

increased secretion of thyroid hormones, caused by thyroid tumor.

Goiter in Hypothyroidism:
• Non-toxic Goiter - Non-toxic goiter is the enlargement of thyroid gland

without increase in hormone secretion. It is also called hypothyroid goiter

 PARATHYROID GLAND
• Parathormone secreted by parathyroid gland is essential for the

maintenance of blood calcium level within a very narrow critical level.

• Maintenance of blood calcium level is necessary because calcium is an

important inorganic ion for many physiological functions

Hypoparathyroidism:
• Hyposecretion of PTH is called hypoparathyroidism. It leads to

hypocalcemia decrease in blood calcium level.

Hyperparathyroidism:
• Hypersecretion of PTH is called hyperparathyroidism. It results in

hypercalcemia.
 ADRENAL GLANDS

• Adrenal glands are called the life-saving glands.

• There are two adrenal glands.
• Each gland is situated on the upper pole of each kidney.
• adrenal glands are otherwise called suprarenal glands.
• Adrenal gland is made of two distinct parts:
1. Adrenal cortex - Outer portion 80% of the gland
2. Adrenal medulla: Central portion, 20% of the gland.
 HORMONES OF ADRENAL GLAND
Hormones of Adrenal Cortex:
• Adrenocortical hormones are steroids in nature, hence the name
‘corticosteroids’. Based on their functions, corticosteroids are classified
into three groups:
1. Mineralocorticoids - Mineralocorticoids are the corticosteroids
that act on the minerals (electrolytes), particularly sodium and potassium.
Mineralocorticoids are Aldosterone and 11-deoxycorticosterone.
2. Glucocorticoids - Glucocorticoids act mainly on glucose
metabolism. Glucocorticoids are: 1. Cortisol 2. Corticosterone 3. Cortisone.
3. Sex hormones - Adrenal cortex secretes mainly the male sex
hormones, which are called androgens. But small quantity of estrogen and
progesterone are also secreted by adrenal cortex
HORMONES OF ADRENAL GLAND CONT.…
• Adrenal medullary hormones are the amines derived from catechol
and so these hormones are called catecholamines
• Catecholamines secreted by adrenal medulla are:
1. Adrenaline or epinephrine
2. Noradrenaline or norepinephrine
3. Dopamine.
• Adrenaline and noradrenaline stimulate the nervous system.
Adrenaline has significant effects on metabolic functions and both
adrenaline and noradrenaline have significant effects on
cardiovascular system
• Dopamine is secreted by adrenal medulla. Dopamine is also secreted
by dopaminergic neurons in some areas of brain, particularly basal
ganglia. In brain, this hormone acts as a neurotransmitter
 PANCREAS
• Pancreas is an organ of the digestive system and endocrine
system of vertebrates. in humans, it is located in the abdomen behind
the stomach and functions as a gland.
• Endocrine function of pancreas is performed by the islets of
Langerhans
• Functions mostly to regulate blood sugar levels, secreting
the hormones insulin(ẞ cells), glucagon(α cells), somatostatin(,
and pancreatic polypeptide.
 PANCREAS CONT…
Hypo-secretion of Insulin:
• Insulin is a hormone produced by the beta cells within the pancreas
in response to the intake of food.
• Insulin role is to lower blood sugar (glucose) levels by allowing cells
in the muscle, liver and fat to take up sugar from the bloodstream that
has been absorbed from food, and store it away as energy.
• Type 1 diabetes the insulin-producing cells are destroyed and the
body is not able to produce insulin naturally.
• Sugar is not stored away but is constantly released from energy stores
giving rise to high sugar levels in the blood
 PANCREAS CONT…
Hyper-secretion of Insulin:
• Hyperinsulinemia is a condition in which there are excess levels
of insulin circulating in the blood relative to the level of glucose.
• Hyperinsulinemia is associated
with hypertension, obesity, dyslipidemia, and glucose
intolerance. these conditions are collectively known
as metabolic syndrome.
• Hyperinsulinemia can result from a variety of metabolic diseases
and conditions, as well as non-nutritive sugars in the diet
 OVARIES
• Ovary is an organ found in the female
reproductive system that produces an ovum.
• Ovum travels down the fallopian tube into
the uterus, where it may become fertilized by
a sperm.
• Ovaries also secrete hormones that play a
role in the menstrual cycle and fertility.
• it is also an endocrine gland because of the
various hormones
• Puberty the ovary begins to secrete
increasing levels of hormones. Secondary
sex characteristics begin to develop in
response to the hormones.
 OVARIES CONT…
• Ovaries are able to regulate hormones.
• When egg cells are released from the
Fallopian tube, a variety of feedback
mechanisms stimulate the endocrine system
which cause hormone levels to change.
• Feedback mechanisms are controlled by the
hypothalamus and pituitary gland
• oocyte finishes its maturation in the ovary, a
surge of luteinizing hormone secreted by
the pituitary gland stimulates the release of
the oocyte through the rupture of the
follicle, a process called ovulation
 OVARIES CONT…

• Follicle remains functional and reorganizes into a corpus luteum,

which secretes progesterone in order to prepare the uterus for an
eventual implantation of the embryo.
• Ovaries secrete estrogen, androgen, inhibin, and progestogen.
• Estrogen is responsible for the appearance of secondary sex
characteristics for females at puberty.
• Progesterone prepares the uterus for pregnancy, and the
mammary glands for lactation. Progesterone functions with
estrogen by promoting menstrual cycle changes in
the endometrium.
 TESTES
• Testicle or testis is the male reproductive
gland or gonad
• Functions of the testes are to produce
both sperm and androgens,
primarily testosterone
• Testosterone release is controlled by the
anterior pituitary luteinizing hormone
• Also been called interstitial cell–stimulating
hormone
• Sperm production is controlled both by
the anterior pituitary follicle-stimulating
hormone and gonadal testosterone
 WHAT IS EXOCRINE GLAND

• Exocrine glands are glands that secrete substances onto an epithelial surface
by way of a duct

DIFFERENT EXOCRINE GLANDS

• Exocrine glands include
1. Sweat 6. Sebaceous
2. Salivary 7. Prostate
3. Mammary 8. Mucous
4. Ceruminous 9. Liver
5. Lacrimal 10. Pancreas
SWEAT GLAND:
• Sweating, is the production of fluids secreted by the sweat
glands in the skin
• Sweating allows the body to regulate its temperature.
• Sweat is not pure water; it always contains a small amount (0.2–
1%) of solute
SALIVARY GLAND:
• Produce saliva through a system of ducts.
• Humans have three paired major salivary glands
parotid, submandibular, and sublingual as well as hundreds of
minor salivary glands.[
MAMMARY GLAND:
• Mammary gland is an exocrine gland in humans and
other mammals that produces milk to feed young offspring.
CERUMINOUS GLANDS:
• Ceruminous glands are specialized sweat glands
located subcutaneously in the external auditory canal
• Ceruminous glands are simple, coiled, tubular glands made up of
an inner secretory layer of cells and an outer myoepithelial layer
of cells.
• Produce cerumen, or earwax, by mixing their secretion
with sebum and dead epidermal cells
LACRIMAL GLANDS:

• Lacrimal glands are paired, almond-shaped exocrine glands, one

for each eye, that secrete the aqueous layer of the tear film.

• Lacrimal gland produces tears which then flow into canals that
connect to the lacrimal sac. From that sac, the tears drain
through the lacrimal duct into the nose.

SEBACEOUS GLAND:

• Sebaceous gland is a microscopic exocrine gland in the skin that

opens into a hair follicle to secrete an oily or waxy matter,
called sebum, which lubricates the hair and skin of mammals.
PROSTATE GLAND:
• Prostate is an accessory gland of the male reproductive system
• Prostate glands produce and contain fluid that forms part
of semen, the substance that is emitted during ejaculation as part
of the male sexual response.
MUCUS GLAND:
• Mucus is a slippery aqueous secretion produced by, and
covering, mucous membranes. It is typically produced from cells
found in mucous glands
LIVER:
• Bile or gall is a dark-green-to-yellowish-brown fluid produced by
the liver of most vertebrates that aids the digestion of lipids in
the small intestine.
• bile is produced continuously by the liver (liver bile) and stored
and concentrated in the gallbladder. After eating, this stored bile
is discharged into the duodenum.
PANCREAS:
• Pancreatic juice is a liquid secreted by the pancreas, which
contains a variety of enzymes,
including trypsinogen, chymotrypsinogen, elastase, carboxypepti
dase, pancreatic lipase, nucleases and amylase.