ENDOCRINOLOGY

THE Introduction
 The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce and
Endocrine secrete hormones, chemical substances produced in the body
that regulate the activity of cells or organs.
System
 ENDOCRINOLOGY is the understanding of hormone
secretion, hormone action and principle of feedback control.
2  The endocrine system is evaluated primarily by measuring
hormone concentrations.
 Most disorders of the endocrine system are amenable to
effective treatment once the correct diagnosis is determined.
• Hormones are chemical signals.
· The endocrine system consists of:
· Endocrine cells which are hormone-secreting cells and
· Endocrine glands which are hormone-secreting
organs.
• Specific target cells respond to specific hormones.
 These hormones regulate the body's
growth, metabolism (the physical and
chemical processes of the body), and
sexual development and function.

The hormones are released into the

bloodstream and may affect one or
several organs throughout the body
 Hormones are chemical
messengers created by the body.

They transfer information from one

set of cells to another to coordinate
the functions of different parts of
the body.
 Primary Function of Hormones
13

• Homeostasis
• Growth and Development
• Reproduction
• Energy Metabolism
• Behavior
 blood glucose low
stimulates

glucose glucagon from

release from pancreas
liver stimulates

inhibits
blood glucose high
 response

hormones
endocrine receptor target
cell protein cell
 response
hormones
endocrine intracellular target
cell receptor cell
Tropic hormones- stimulate
the production and secretion of
hormones by other endocrine
glands; ex. TSH

Nontropic hormones-
stimulates cellular growth,
metabolism, or other functions;
ex. thyroxine
Fig. 45-10
Major endocrine glands:
Hypothalamus
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Organs containing
Thyroid gland endocrine cells:
Parathyroid glands Thymus
Heart

Liver
Adrenal
glands Stomach

Testes Pancreas Kidney

Kidney Small
intestine
Ovaries
 pineal gland
hypothalamus

pituitary gland
Produces melatonin (synthesized
from seratonin, a derivative of
tryptophan)
• Secreted directly in CSF to blood
• High levels at night make us sleepy; low level during day
• Pineal gland is stimulated by darkness and inhibited by
light
• Function in regulating circadian rhythms (sleep, body
temp, appetite)  biological clock
hypothalamus

anterior pituitary
posterior pituitary
 Hypothalamus

Posterior
Anterior Pituitary
Pituitary
THE PITUITARY GLAND
The Pituitary
Gland Is In Your
Brain
It is also known as the Hypophysis!
The Pituitary Gland Is…
 the size of a pea!

 behind the bridge of the nose,

between the optic nerves.
 found in a bony hollow beneath
the base of the brain, in the sella
turcica, and beneath the
hypothalamus.
 divided into two major lobes,
the anterior lobe and the
posterior lobe.
 Chemical Activity
Let’s Talk Hormones:
The different lobes of the
ANTERIOR LOBE
pituitary gland produce entirely 1. Growth hormone
different hormones. The
hormones have an impact on all 2. Luteinizing hormone
of the other glands of the body.
3. Adrenocorticotrophic
hormone
POSTERIOR LOBE 4. Prolactin
1. Oxytocin 5. Follicle stimulating
hormone
2. Anti-diuretic hormone 6. Thyroid stimulating
hormone
What do these hormones regulate?
 Growth
 Breast milk production
 Contractions during birth
 Water retention/removal by the
kidneys
 Egg production by the ovaries
 Stress hormone production by the
adrenal glands
 Activity of the thyroid gland
Facts about hormones:

 All anterior pituitary hormones are proteins, that act

through secondary messenger systems and are
regulated, in most cases, by negative feedback.
 The prolactin and growth hormones exert their major
effects on nonendocrine targets.
 The remaining four are tropic hormones which
stimulate their endocrine gland targets to secrete their
hormones, which in effect will stimulate other body
organs and tissues.
 THIS IS WHY THE PITUITARY GLAND IS THE
MASTER GLAND!!!
 Molecular Make-Up

 Anterior Lobe: GLANDULAR TISSUE

 Types of cells:
 1) acidophils

 2) basophils

 3) chromophobes

 Posterior Lobe: NERVOUS TISSUE

Functions of
The major function of the pituitary
the Pituitary
gland is to secrete hormones.
Gland (and its
hormones!)

HOWEVER, the activity of these

hormones is what’s important
because they affect multiple other
parts of the body.
 Growth Hormone (GH):
• Effects growth of skeletal muscles and long bones.
• Causes amino acids to be built into proteins and stimulates target cells to grow
and divide.
• Causes fat to be broken down and used for energy.
• Helps to maintain blood sugar homeostasis.

Prolactin (PRL):
Anterior • Stimulates and maintains milk production by the mother’s breasts after
Lobe childbirth.

Hormone Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH):

Functions: • Regulates endocrine activity of adrenal cortex.

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (AKA thyrotropic hormone)

(TH):
• Influences growth and activity of thyroid gland.
  Gonadotropic Hormones:
 Regulate the hormonal activity of the gonads (ovaries
and testes).
 Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH):

Anterior  Stimulates follicle development in ovaries in women. As they

mature, they produce estrogen.
Lobe  Stimulates sperm development by the testes in men.
Hormone  Luteinizing Hormone (LH):
Functions:  Triggers ovulation of an egg from the ovary in women.
 Stimulates testosterone production by the interstitial cells of
testes in men.
 The posterior lobe does not create its own hormones. These two
hormones are formed by the hypothalamus.
The posterior lobe acts as a storage area for these hormones.

Posterior
Lobe Oxytocin:
Hormone
• Released in significant amounts during childbirth and nursing in women.
Functions: • Stimulates powerful contractions of the uterine muscle.
• Causes milk ejection (“let-down reflex”) during nursing.

Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH): (diuresis = urine production)

• Inhibits or prevents urine production.

• Causes kidneys to reabsorb more water from urine.
• Urine volume decreases; blood volume increases.
• Increases blood pressure (in large amounts).
Pituitary Gland=  Pituitary-Hypothalamus
MASTER GLAND: Relationship:
 Pituitary gland controls activity of
many other endocrine glands
 Its removal or destruction would cause
the adrenal glands and thyroid glands
and gonads atrophy
 Release of hormones is controlled by
the releasing and inhibiting of
hormones produced by the
hypothalamus.
 The hypothalamus releases these
regulatory hormones into the blood of a
portal circulation (two capillary beds
connected by veins) which connects the
blood of the hypothalamus with the
blood of the anterior pituitary.
 Pituitary Tumors:
• When the cells that make up the pituitary gland grow too much or create
small growths.
• Interfere with the normal production and release of hormones.
• Common in adults.
What if
something Two types of tumors: Secretory & Non-Secretory
• Secretory= produce too much of a hormone.
goes wrong? • Non-Secretory= large size interferes with normal functions of the gland.

The consequences include:

• Hypersecretion= over-production of any hormone.
• Hyposecretion= under-production of hormones (usually caused by non-
secretory tumor).
• Tumor mass effects= as a tumor grows and presses against the gland and
other parts of the brain, head aches, vision problems, or other health
issues may occur.
  Cushing’s Disease:
 A secretory tumor associated with the hypersecretion of
ACTH, causing too much cortisol by the adrenals.
 Affects 4,000+ people in the U.S. per year.
 Symptoms include:
 Muscle weakness
 Purple stretch marks

Specifically:  Rapid weight gain

 Memory loss
 Menstrual cycle disorders
 Skin changes & red cheeks
 Depression
 High blood sugar/pressure
 Treatment= personalized, but may include medication,
surgery, and radiation.
  Non-functioning Adenoma:
 A non-secretory tumor often associated with head injury.
 May cause headaches and vision problems and also hyposecretion.
 Symptoms/Effects:
 Loss of appetite
 Weight loss/gain
 Fatigue
Specifically:  Irregular menstrual cycle
 Infertility
 Frequent urination at night
 Joint pains
 Dizziness
 Low blood pressure
 Treatment may include transsphenoidal microsurgery through the
nasal sinuses, hormone replacement, or radiation.
Molecular Images:

Slides A-C: normal pituitary Slides D-F: pituitary adenoma in

obtained at autopsy. Cushing disease.
Pituitary Tumor Images

 Image 1: MRI image showing a

large nonfunctioning pituitary
macroadenoma
 Image 2: illustrated image of
pituitary tumor.
 The endocrine system is regulated by feedback in
much the same way that a thermostat regulates the
temperature in a room.

53
For the hormones that are regulated by the
pituitary gland, a signal is sent from the
hypothalamus to the pituitary gland in the form
of a "releasing hormone," which stimulates the
pituitary to secrete a "stimulating hormone" into
the circulation.
 The stimulating hormone then
signals the target gland to secrete
its hormone.

As the level of this hormone rises in the

circulation, the hypothalamus and the
54
pituitary gland shut down secretion of
the releasing hormone and the
stimulating hormone, which in turn
slows the secretion by the target gland.

This system results in stable

blood concentrations of the
hormones that are regulated by
the pituitary gland.
55

It serves many different

Hypothalamus
functions in the nervous system
The hypothalamus is a part of
, and is also responsible for the
the brain located superior and
direct control of the endocrine
anterior to the brain stem and
system through the pituitary
inferior to the thalamus.
gland.
Posterior Pituitary Gland and Its
Relation to the Hypothalamus
POSTERIOR LOBE

HORMONES

1. Oxytocin
2. Anti-diuretic hormone
 TWO HORMONES
 Antidiuretic hormone (also called vasopressin) controls
the rate of water excretion into the urine, thus helping to
control the concentration of water in the body fluids.
 (V1 receptor, vascular smooth muscle, Phospholipase C)
 (V2 receptor, epithelial cells (kidney, cyclic AMP)

 Oxytocin helps express milk from the glands of the

breast to the nipples during suckling helps in the delivery
of the baby at the end of gestation.
 ADH(Antidiuretic hormone (also called
vasopressin
▶ primarily in the supra optic nuclei causes decreased excretion of water
by the kidneys (antidiuresis) and vasoconstriction of blood vessels.
▶ Site:
▶ Late distal tubules to water increases greatly and allows most of the
water to be reabsorbed as the tubular fluid passes through these ducts,
thereby conserving water in the body
▶ Inc. the permeability of the collecting ducts producing very concentrated
urine
 Aquaporins are a large number of special vesicles inside the cell
membrane that have highly water-permeable pores.
 When ADH acts on the cell, it first combines with membrane
receptors (V2) that activate adenylyl cyclase and cause the
formation of CAMP inside the tubular cell cytoplasm.
 This causes phosphorylation of elements in the special vesicles, which
then causes the vesicles to insert into the apical cell membranes, thus
providing many areas of high water permeability.
 All this occurs within 5 to 10 minutes.
 Water is then absorbed from the collecting tubules and ducts by
osmosis.
 V1A receptors mediate the vasoconstrictor effect of vasopressin, and
vasopressin is a potent stimulator of vascular smooth muscle in vitro.
 Hemorrhage is a potent stimulus for vasopressin secretion.
 It appears that vasopressin does play a role in blood pressure
homeostasis.
 V1A receptors are also found in the liver and the brain.
 Vasopressin causes glycogenolysis in the liver, and it is a
neurotransmitter in the brain and spinal cord.
 The V1B receptors (also called V3 receptors) appear to be unique to
the anterior pituitary, where they mediate increased
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion from the
corticotropes.
Regulation of Anti diuretic Hormone Production

▶ Increased Extracellular Fluid

Osmolarity Stimulates Antidiuretic Hormone
Secretion

▶ Low Blood Volume and Low

Blood Pressure Stimulate ADH
Secretion-Vasoconstrictor Effects of
ADH
 Role of ECF Osmolarity

▶ modified neuron receptors called osmoreceptors.

▶ When the extracellular fluid becomes too concentrated, fluid is pulled
by osmosis out of the osmoreceptor cell, decreasing its size and
initiating appropriate nerve signals in the hypothalamus to cause
additional ADH secretion.
▶ osmoreceptors are located in the organum vasculosum, a
highly vascular structure in the anteroventral wall of the third
ventricle.
▶ Regardless of the mechanism, concentrated body fluids stimulate the
supraoptic nuclei, whereas dilute body fluids inhibit them.
 Low Blood Volume and Low Blood
Pressure Stimulate ADH Secretion-
Vasoconstrictor
Effects of ADH

▶ higher concentrations of ADH have a potent effect of constricting the

arterioles throughout the body and therefore increasing the arterial pressure.
▶ For this reason also called vasopressin.
▶ One of the stimuli for causing intense ADH secretion is decreased
blood volume.
▶ This occurs strongly when the blood volume decreases 15 to 25 percent or
more; the secretory rate then sometimes rises to as high as 50 times normal.
▶ The cause of this is the following. The atria have stretch
receptors that are excited by overfilling. When excited, they
send signals to the brain to inhibit ADH secretion.
▶ Conversely, when the receptors are unexcited as a result
of underfilling, the opposite occurs, with greatly
increased ADH secretion.
▶ Decreased stretch of the baroreceptors of the carotid,
aortic, pulmonary regions also stimulates ADH
secretion.
OXYTOCIN
 Oxytocin Causes Contraction of the Pregnant Uterus
(Para ventricular nuclei)
 Powerfully stimulates contraction of the pregnant uterus, especially
toward the end of gestation.
 It is believed that this hormone is at least partially responsible for
causing birth of the baby.
 This is supported by the following facts:
 (1) In a hypophysectomized animal, the duration of labor is prolonged,
indicating a possible effect of oxytocin during delivery.
 (2) The amount of oxytocin in the plasma increases during labor,
especially during the last stage.
 (3) Stimulation of the cervix in a pregnant animal elicits nervous
signals that pass to the hypothalamus and cause increased secretion of
oxytocin.
 Oxytocin Aids in Milk Ejection
▶by the Breasts
This mechanism works as follows:
 The suckling stimulus on the nipple of the breast causes signals be
transmitted through sensory nerves to the oxytocin neurons in the
paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei in the hypothalamus,
 It causes release of oxytocin by the posterior pituitary gland.
 The oxytocin is then carried by the blood to the breasts, where it causes
contraction of myoepithelial cells that lie outside of and form a
latticework surrounding the alveoli of the mammary glands.
 In less than a minute after the beginning of suckling, milk begins to flow.
This mechanism is called milk letdown or milk ejection.