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    Um e Usman
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    This is about the introduction of epidemiology

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    02.Intro to Epidemiology. 26 slides

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    This is about the introduction of epidemiology

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    6 views26 pages

    02.intro To Epidemiology. 26 Slides

    Uploaded by

    Um e Usman
    This is about the introduction of epidemiology

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPTX, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    Download as pptx, pdf, or txt
    of 26

    Research Method

    Vs
    Research Methodology
    DR SHAHZAD AKHTAR AZIZ
    MBBS,MPH,CHPE,PGD
    Comparison Table Between Research Method and
    Research Methodology
    Parameters of comparison Research method Research methodology

    It is the process of doing surveys, collecting It is the process of studying the research
    Definition
    data, and doing analysis. methods.

    The aims are to secure that the research


    Objective The aim is to find the result of the research. procedure is going on the correct path to
    becoming successful.

    This is mostly applicable at the final stages of This is applicable from the initial stages of
    When to initialize
    the researches. the researches.

    It consists of surveys, data collection, and


    Steps followed It consists of a systematic strategy.
    analysis

    It is huge planning and procedure for


    Importance It is a part of research methodology.
    successful researches.
    Epidemiology
    EPIDEMIOLOGICAL
    METHODS

    OBSERVATIONAL EXPERIMENTAL

    RANDOMIZED NON- RANDOMIZED


    DESCRIPTIVE ANALYTICAL
    CONTROL TRIALS TRIALS

    CASE CONTROL

    COHORT
    Types of Epidemiological Studies
    EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDIES

    Non Experimental Experimental


    Observational Studies Interventional Studies

    Population Individual
    Randomized Non-randomized
    Based Based
    Control trial Quasi-Experimental
    or Field trial
    (Clinical trial) Community Trial
    Descriptive Analytic
    (Health (Ecological Descriptive Analytic
    Survey) Study) Case reports
    Case series

    Cross-sectional study Case-control study Cohort study or


    Or Prevalence study Or Case-reference 4
    Follow-up study
    Epidemiology

    DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
    FIRST PHASE OF AN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION.

    OBSERVE THE DISTRIBUTION OF DISEASE OR HEALTH RELATED

    CHARACTERISTICS.

    IDENTIFY THE CHARACTERISTICS WITH WHICH DISEASE IS ASSOCIATED.

    ASK THE QUESTIONS

    WHEN IS DISEASE OCCURRING

    WHERE IS IT OCCURRING

    WHO IS GETTING THE DISEASE


    Epidemiology

    PROCEDURE IN DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES

    1. DEFINING THE POPULATION TO BE STUDIED

    2. DEFINING THE DISEASE UNDER STUDY.

    3. DESCRIBING THE DISEASE BY

    4. MEASUREMENT OF DISEASE

    5. COMPARING WITH KNOWN INDICES

    6. FORMULATION OF ETIOLOGICAL HYPOTHESIS.


    Epidemiology

    DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
    1. DEFINING THE POPULATION TO BE STUDIED

    DEFINE THE POPULATION BASE IN TERMS OF

    NUMBER, AGE , SEX, OCCUPATIONAL GROUPS CULTURAL


    CHARACTERISTICS

    2. DEFINING THE DISEASE UNDER STUDY.

    THE DISEASE IS DEFINED IN OPERATIONAL TERMS

    3. DESCRIBING THE DISEASE BY TIME, PLACE AND PERSON.


    Epidemiology

    DESCRIBING THE DISEASE BY


    DISEASE MAY BE DESCRIBED BY YEAR, MONTH, WEEK, DAY,
    HOUR OF ONSET.

    1. SHORT TERM FLUCTUATION (EPIDEMIC)

    2. PERIODIC FLUCTUATION

    A) SEASONAL TREND (MEASLES,MALARIA, ARI)

    B) CYCLIC TREND (MEASLES 2-3 YEARS, RUBELLA 6-9 YEARS,


    INFLUENZA 7-10 YEARS.

    3. LONG TERM OR SECULAR TRENDS (CHD, LUNG CANCER,


    DIABETES)
    4.Epidemic :
    This is occurrence, in a community or region, of cases of an 9
    illness (an outbreak) clearly in excess of expected
    occurrence. This indicates that the number of susceptible is
    more than the resistant in the community.

    Epidemic are classified as follows:

    1. Common source epidemics


    2. Point source epidemics
    3. Propagative (progressive) Epidemics

    .
    1. Common Source Epidemic
    In common source epidemics, all susceptible individuals are exposed to a specific 10
    infectious pathogen or noxious agent (chemicals, pollution, heat, etc)
    originating from a usual, conventional or customary source that is common
    exposure.
    Mode of transmission:
    1. Indirect (vehicle borne)
    1.1 Food
    1.2 Water
    1.3 Air
    1.4 Fomites

    2. No direct transmission
    Common Source Epidemic curve
    11

    Number of Cases

    Exposure

    A B

    0 Time
    A-Minimum Incubation Period
    A+B-Usual Incubation Period
    Common Source Epidemic Curve 12
     Fewest number of cases become apparent after a
    minimum incubation period and that the largest
    number peaks at the end of the usual incubation
    period.
     Unimodal shape.
     Although common source epidemics may involve
    only one incubation period of an organism, repeated or
    prolonged population exposure to the common source
    often involves infection by a pathogen over the course
    of more than one incubation period , producing a wide
    peak or apex in the common source curve.
    13

    Point source Epidemic

    In a point source epidemic, all susceptible individuals are exposed to


    a specific pathogen at one point in time. Point source epidemics
    are essentially a subcategory of the common source epidemic in
    which common exposure to the offending pathogen or agent is
    both brief and simultaneous.
    Point Source Epidemic 14

    Number of Cases

    Exposure

    A
    0 Time
    A- Incubation Period
    Point Source Epidemic 15

    1. All the cases are in one incubation period of the


    infectious agent.
    2. Apex is much sharper.
    3. Rapid decline as compared to common source.
    4. No secondary transmission is seen.
    Propagative (progressive) Epidemic
    16
    In propagative (progressive, serial transmission) epidemics,
    the pathogen is transmitted from person to person .
    Mode of transmission:
    Direct:
    1.genital
    2.anal
    3.oral
    4.skin Contact
    5.Droplets(fungi, bacterial spores)

    Indirect:
    In which the pathogen is either vectorborne (arthropods) or airborne
    (dried droplet residues and dust)
    Propagative (progressive) Epidemic curve 17

    Number of Cases

    Secondary Cases

    0 Time
    Propagative (progressive) Epidemic curve
    18

    1. Curve for a propagative epidemic shows an initial rise in the number of


    cases that is less explosive than in a point source epidemic.
    2. Successive generations of secondary infection produce a polymodal
    distribution conforming to several generations of incubation period.
    2 Periodic Fluctuation

    Seasonal trend (Measles,Malaria, ARI)

    Cyclic Trend (Measles 2-3 years, Rubella 6-9 years,


    Influenza 7-10 years.
    3. Long term or Secular trends:

    (CHD, Lung Cancer, Diabetes)


    Epidemiology

    •INTERNATIONAL VARIATION

    •NATIONAL VARIATIONS

    •RURAL- URBAN DIFFERENCES

    •LOCAL DISTRIBUTION
    PERSON DISTRIBUTION

     Age
     Sex,
     Ethnicity,
     Marital status,
     Occupation,
     Social class,
     Behavior
     Stress
     Migration
    4. Measurement of disease
    Amount of disease in terms of mortality, morbidity and disability
    • Mortality by death record
    • Morbidity by incidence and prevalence
    • Incidence-longitudinal studies
    • Prevalence-cross sectional studies
    5. COMPARISON WITH KNOWN INDICES

     Comparison between different populations and subgroups


    6. Formulation of etiological hypothesis.
    A HYPOTHESIS IS A SUPPOSITION ARRIVED FROM
    OBSERVATION OR REFLECTION. HYPOTHESIS SHOULD
    SPECIFY
    1. THE POPULATION
    2. SPECIFIC CAUSE BEING CONSIDERED
    3. THE EXPECTED OUT COME (DISEASE)
    4. DOSE RESPONSE RELATION SHIP
    5. TIME RESPONSE RELATIONSHIP
    Uses of Descriptive epidemiology
     Provide data regarding the magnitude of the disease load and types of disease
    problems in the community in terms of morbidity and mortality rates and
    ratios.
     Provide clues to the aetiology
     Provide background data for planning ,organizing and evaluating preventive
    and curative services
     Contribute to research by describing variations in disease occurrence by
    time ,place and person.
    k
    an
    Th u
    yo

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