Presentation By:

Ms. Shivani Mishra

(Department of Applied Sciences and Humanities)
Indian tradition Culture and Society
Lecture-9
SCIENCE MANAGEMENT AND INDIAN
KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM
•India also has a fair share in enriching the world’s
material culture. Be it distillation of perfumes, the
making of dyes, the extraction of sugar, the weaving of
cotton and even the techniques of algebra and
algorithm, the concept of zero, the technique of
surgery, the concepts of atom and relativity, the herbal
system of medicine, the technique of alchemy, the
smelting of metals, the game of Chess, the martial art
of Karate, etc. are to be found in ancient India and there
are evidences which indicate that they might have
originated here.
•This indicates the fact that India carries a rich legacy of
scientific ideas.
Let us unfold the various areas in which we find the
contribution of the scientists from various parts of India.
Astronomy in India
 Astronomy in India
India has a strong and ancient tradition
of astronomy which seamlessly
merges with the current activities in
Astronomy and Astrophysics in the
country.

“Astronomy is concerned with the

observation of heavenly objects such
as the sun, the moon, the stars, their
times of rising and setting, the waxing
and waning of the moon, changes in
the relative positions of certain
observed stars, trying to understand
the causes behind these observed
phenomenon and if possible to put
this knowledge to practical use in the
service of mankind.”
 Cont…
Some of the earliest forms of astronomy can be dated to the
period of Indus Valley Civilization or earlier.
Some cosmological concepts are present in the Vedas.
The Shulba Sutras- Text dedicated to altar construction, discusses
advance mathematics and basic astronomy.
Vedanga Jyotisha- The earliest known text on astronomy includes
details about the sun, moon, nakshatras, lunisolar calendar
Rig Veda also has references to astronomy related topics which
signifies its roots in India even much earlier than the Vedic
period.
Aryabhattiya- A concise text containing 121 verses with separate
sections on astronomical definitions, methods of determining
the true position of the planets, description of the movement of
the sun and the moon and the calculation of the eclipses.
 Cont…
• Aryabhatta deviated
from Vedic astronomy
and gave it a scientific
outlook which became
a guideline for later
astronomers

Varahamihira in Panch
Siddhantika which gives
the summary of five
schools of astronomy
present in his time
 Cont…
Nakshatras- Essentially the division of the ecliptic was done into 27 equal
parts:
Ashwani, Bharni, Kritika, Rohini, Mrigshirsha, Adra, Punarvasu, Pushya,
Ashlesha, Magha, Purva Phalguni, Hasta, Chitra, Swati, Vishakha,
Anuradha, Jyeshtha, Mula, Purva Ashadha, Uttara Ashadha, Abhijit,
Sravna, Dhanishtha, Shatbhisha, Purva Bhadrapada, Uttara Bhadrapada
and Revati
Padas (Quarters)- Each nakshatra is again divided into four equal padas. So
27 nakshatra each with 4 padas gives a total of 108 padas, which is the
number in the rosary.
Planets – Located near the path of sun in the sky.
Other Stars- Riksh (Sapt Rishi)- A star cluster mentioned in Rik Sanhita and
Shatpath Brahmana
 MATHEMATICS IN ANCIENT INDIA

• The mathematical tradition in India goes back to the

Vedas.
• The transmission of knowledge was oral, the number
were not written, but expressed in combinations of
power of 10
• The decimal place value system of writing numbers
together with the use of ‘0’ found in early centuries.
• Geometry, in the context of construction of Vedis for
yajnas used during Vedic period.
• Sulvasutra, by Baudhayana contain elaborate description
on construction of Vedis and geometric principles,
concept of pi, Pythagoras theorem.
Mathematics in Ancient times
Harappa and Mohenjodaro. the two famous cities of Indus Valley
Civilization provide evidences that they use standardized
measurement like decimals and geometry.

The Classical Era of Indian Mathematics

The most famous names include- Aryabhata, Brahmagupta, Bhaskara,
Mahavira and Bhaskaracharya.
Mathematics in the Modern Age

Important discoveries and contribution by modern mathematicians

such as Srinivasa Ramanujan, Harish Chandra and Manjul Bhargava.
 Aryabhatta in around 499 AD wrote Aryabhattiya in which the concepts of
mathematics as well as astronomy were explicitly mentioned.

The book had four sections:

1. Method of denoting big decimal numbers by alphabets
2. Number theory
3. Geometry, trigonometry
4. Bijaganita

 Aryabhatta in his book stated that the earth is round and rotates on its own axis.
 He formulated the area of a triangle and discovered Algebra.
 The value of PI given by Aryabhatta is much more accurate than that given by
the Greeks.
 The Jyotisa part of Aryabhattiya also deals with astronomical definitions, method
of determining the true position of the planets, movement of the Sun and the
Moon and the calculation of the eclipses.
 In his book, the reasons for the eclipses given are that –
 When the shadow of the Earth falls on the Moon while rotating on its own axis,
the lunar eclipse occurs.
 When the Moon’s shadow falls on the Earth, it results in solar eclipse.
Bhaskaracharya
 A chakrawat method or the cyclic method to solve algebraic equations
was introduced by him in his book Lilavati.
 In the nineteenth century, James Taylor translated Lilavati and made
it known to the people across the globe.
 Lilavati was translated into Persian by Faizi. Faizi, in the court of Akbar,
translated Bhaskara’s Beejaganita.

 In the Medieval period, Narayan Pandit produced works of

mathematics which include Ganitakaumudi and Bijaganitavatamsa.
 Nilakantha Somasutvan wrote Tantrasamgraha, which contains the
rules of trigonometric functions.

 Nilakanatha Jyotirvida compiled Tajik, dealing with a large number of

Persian technical terms.
Major Contribution by Indian Mathematicians

Solution of quadratic equations

Brahmagupta, in his Brahmasputsiddhantika
introduced rules for solving quadratic equation(so
beloved of secondary school mathematics
students) and for computing square roots.

Basics of Calculus
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz was one of the first
European to use zero and the negatives in a
systematic way in his development of calculus in
late 17th century. But Indian mathematician,
Bhaskara, had already discovered many of
Leibniz’s ideas over 500 years earlier.
The Idea of Zero
Mathematical digit ‘Zero’, one of the most
important inventions of all time. Aryabhatta was
the first person to create a symbol for zero and his
efforts made mathematical operations like
addition and subtraction using the digit zero.
The Decimal System
India gave the ingenious method of
expressing all numbers by means of
ten symbols-the decimal system
which facilitate calculation and
using arithmatic in practical
inventions much faster and easier.

Numeral Notations
In early 500 BC, Indians had devised
a system of different symbols for
every number from one to nine,
which was adopted by Arab who
called it the hind numerals and
centuries later this notation system
was adopted by western world as
Arabic numbers.
Ruler Measurements
Excavation at Harappan sites have
yielded rulers or linear measures
made from ivory and shell. The
ancient bricks at the excavation
sites have dimensions that
correspond to the units on these
rulers.
Binary Numbers
The basic language in which
computer programs are written (set
of two numbers 1 and 0, the
combination of which are called bits
and bytes).
This system was first described by
Vedic scholar, Pingala, in his book,
Chandahsastra.
Physics in Ancient India
•From the Vedic times, the materials on the Earth have been classified into
panchbhootas. These panchmahabhootas were identified with human senses of
perception.
a. Earth (prithvi) with smell
b. Fire (agni) with vision
c. Air (maya) with feeling
d. Water (apa) with taste
e. Ether/Space (akasha) with sound.

•There are five different types of parmanu for five different elements. Hence it
can be inferred that Indian philosophers conceived the idea of splitting an atom.

• Indian philosophers Kanada and Pakudha Katyayana in 6th century BC, first
coined the idea of atoms and the material world being constituted of atoms.
•Kanada explained that material world is made up of kana which cannot be seen
through human organ.

•They cannot be further subdivided and are indestructible as even said by the
modern atomic theory.
Biology in India
•In the chapter 24th of Yajurveda, there is a vast list of animals wild and
domestic, birds and those creatures which lives in water .

•In Atharva veda there is mention of wild animals including lion and tigers.
Elephants and Ashwa are also described in Atharva veda.

•Sushruta mentioned more than 300 operations employing 42 different surgical

processes and 121 different types of instruments.
Lecture-10
 CHEMISTRY IN INDIA
Alchemy (the older form of
chemistry) had made great
strides in India

Indus Valley Civilization- The

story of early chemistry in
India begins here as it
developed in terms of
streets, temples, public
baths, house of baked
bricks, pottery and script of
their own
The Historic Period-
•According to RigVeda, tanning of leather and dyeing of cotton,
polished grey pottery, painted grey ware and red polished ware was
practiced during this period which indicate their mastery of control
over temprature.

•Classical texts like Upnishads and Puranas also provide valuable

information about chemical activities of this period.

•Kautilya’s Arthashastra, a scientific landmark of the period described

the production of salt from the sea and collection of shells,
diamonds, pearls and corals.

•Charak Samhita (medicine) and Sushrut Samhita (surgery) two

tretises contain chemical knowledge.
 Cont…
Chemical Art and Crafts in Later Periods

• Glass making, pottery, jwellery making, dyeing of clothes and tanning of

leather were major chemical arts and crafts in the early period. As a
result of this expanded activity, the alchemical knowledge increased.

• Following were the major chemical products that contributed to the

development of chemistry
Glass – Ramayana, Brahtsamhita
Kautilys’s Arthashastra and
Sukranitisara mention the use of
glass.
Traditional Glass Factory at Kopia in
Basti District of Uttar Pradesh.
Glass slag was found at Kolhapur,
Nevasa, Paunar and Maheshwar
Glass furnaces of late medieval period
were found at Mysore.

Paper- Paper was known to India in

the seventh century. The use of paper
begun in the medieval period.
Kashmir, Patna, Murshidabad,
Ahmedabad, Aurangabad, Mysore, etc
were well known centres of paper
production.
soap- Ancient Indians use certain plants and
their fruits like the soap. Ex. Nuts of Ritha and
Shikakai
Manusmriti and Yajnavalkyasmriti also
mentioned soap like substance as Phenaka.
Oil of Eranda, seeds of plant Mahua and impure
Calcium Corbonate were used for washing.
Dyeing- Classical text Atharvaveda mentioned
some dye stuffs.
Dyes were extracted from inorganic substances
by soaking and mixing them in water and
allowing the material to settle, then solution
was taken out and spread on a pot and
evaporated to get the dry dye.
Cosmetics - Sanskrit literature like
Brahatsamhita by Varahmihira has many
references.
Navnitika, contained recipe of hair dyes with
plant indigo, iron powder and acidic extract of
sour rice gruel.
 Perfumes- Gandhayukti gave recipes for
making scents, mouth perfumes, bath
powders, incense and talcum powder. Ain-i-
Akbari discusses the “regulation of perfume
office” of Akbar. Mother of Noorjahan is
credited with the discovery of attar of roses.
Ink- During excavation at Taxila, an inkpot
unearthed suggest that it was known and
used in India from fourth century.
The inscriptions on Ajanta Caves were written
with colored ink, made from chalk, red lead
Special ink was prepared with roasted rice,
lampblack, sugar and juice of plant Kesurte.
Alcoholic Liquors- Somrasa in vedas,
Medaka, Prasanna, Asava, Madhu in
Arthashastra’s are the evidences of the use of
intoxicants in India.
Pharmaceuticals – Medicines were chiefly derived from plants applying
the process of dissolution, distillation, sublimation, precipitation,
combustion, dilution and decocting. Mercury and gold were also used in
a number of drugs.

Modern Chemistry
The pharmaceutical industry based on Ayurveda continued to exist but
gradually decline too.

Modern science appeared in late nineteenth century in India, when

European scientists came to India
A science college was established in Calcutta in 1814.
The study of chemistry was first introduced in the Presidency College of
Calcutta in 1872, followed by post-graduate teaching in chemistry in
1886.
 Cont…
 Rasarnava, a Sanskrit text written in medieval period (12th century),
deals with Tantrism. Its work on tantra deals with metallic preparations
and alchemy under chemistry

 After the advent of Mughals, the manufacture of gunpowder and its use
in guns also started in India.

 Saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal were used in different ratios to produce

different varieties of gunpowder.

 The casting of cannons is explicitly mentioned in Tujuk-i-Baburi.

 In the field of geology, hydrology and ecology, the contribution of

Varahamihira cannot be forgotten. He lived in the Gupta period and was
among the nine gems in the court of Vikramaditya.
 Nagarjuna One of the famous alchemist of
ancient times was born in Gujarat in 931
AD, blessed with this power of changing
base metals into gold, the gold could not
be produced but the method has been
useful in producing metals with gold like
yellowish brilliance which even helps in
manufacturing imitation jewellery.
 He wrote a treatise Rasaratnakara, a book
on chemistry mainly deals with
preparation of liquids (mainly mercury)
and also emphasized on the survey of
metallurgy and alchemy.
 Nagarjuna also wrote Uttaratantra which
is a supplement to Sushruta Samhita and
deals with preparation of medicinal drugs.
 Four ayurvedic treatises have also been
written by him in the later years when his
interest shifted in organic chemistry and
medicine.
MEDICINE IN INDIA
•During the Vedic times, Ashwini Kumars were the practisioners of
medicine and were given the divine status.
•Dhanvantari was the God of medicine.
•Atharva Veda was the first book where we find mention about the
diseases, its cure and medicines.
•According to it, the diseases were caused by the demons and spirits
entering into the human body and can be cured by magical charms
and spells.
•Atharva Veda mentioned cure for many of the diseases which include
diarrhea, sores, cough,
leprosy, fever and seizure.
•However, the era of practical and more rational cure to diseases
emerged around 600 BC.
•Takshila and Varanasi emerged as the centres for medicinal learning.
•The two important treaties during this time were:
•Charak Samhita (deals with Ayurveda) by Charak
Sushruta Samhita (deals with Surgery) by Sushruta Before them,
Atreya and Agnivesa had already dealt with principles of Ayurveda
way back in 800 BCE.
 CHARAK SAMHITA
•Charak Samhita mainly deals with
use of plants and herbs for
medicinal purposes. In a way, it
mainly deals with Ayurveda as a
science having the following eight
components:
•Kaya Chikitsa (General Medicine)
•Kaumara-Bhrtya (Paediatrics)
•Shalya Chikitsa (Surgery)
•Salakya Tantra
(Ophthalmology/ENT)
•Buta Vidya
(Demonology/Psychiatry)
•Agada Tantra (Toxicology)
•Rasayana Tantra (Elixirs)
•Vajikarana Tantra (Aphrodisiacs)
•In Charak Samhita, extensive note on digestion, metabolism and
immune system is written.
•Charaka emphasises that the functioning of a human body depends on
three Doshas:
1. Bile
2. Phlegm
3. Wind
•These doshas are produced with the help of blood, flesh and marrow and
the body becomes sick due to an imbalance between these three doshas.
•Drugs can be used to restore this balance.
•Charaka in his book has put more emphasis on prevention rather than
cure.
•Genetics also finds a mention in Charaka Samhita.
 SUSHRUTA SAMHITA

•Sushruta Samhita deals with

practical problems of Surgery and
Obstetrics.

• Sushruta studied anatomy in

great detail with the aid of a
human dead body.

• His specialty was mainly:

•Rhinoplasty (plastic surgery)
Ophthalmology (ejection of
Cataract)
Metallurgy in India
•The extraction, purification, alloying and application of metals is called
metallurgy.
•For Over 7000 years, India has had a high tradition of metallurgical skill.
•The seven metals of antiquity- gold, copper, silver, lead, tin , iron and
mercury

Classification of Metals in Ancient Indian Literature

There are four shuddha Lohas (native metals)
a. Suvarna (Gold)
b. Rajata (Silver)
c. Tamra (Copper)
d. Loha (Iron)

•In addition, there are two Putilohas- Naga(Lead) and Vanga(Tin)

Three Misra Lohas(Alloys)- Pittala(Brass), Kamsya(Bell Metal), Varta
Loha(An alloy made of five metals)
Agriculture in Ancient India
•In the medieval period, agricultural practices were same as early ancient India.

•However, some changes were brought about by the foreigners such as the
introduction of new crops, trees and horticultural plants.

•The principal crops were- wheat, rice, barley, millets, pulses, oilseeds, cotton,
sugarcane and indigo.

•The Western Ghats continued to yield black pepper of good quality.

• Kashmir maintained its tradition for saffron and fruits.

• Ginger and cinnamon from Tamilnadu, cardamom, sandalwood and coconuts

from Kerala were becoming increasingly popular.

• Tobacco, chillies, potato, guava, custard apple, cashew and pineapple were
the important new plants which made India their home in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries.

The region of Malwa and Bihar were also well known for the production of
opium from the poppy plants.
•Improved horticultural methods were adopted with great success.

• The systematic mango grafting was introduced by the Jesuits of Goa in the
middle of the sixteenth century.

• In the field of irrigation- wells, tanks, canals, rahats, charas (bucket made
of leather) and dhenkli were used to lift water with the help of yoked oxen,
which continued to be the means of irrigation.

•Persian wheel was used in and around Agra region.

• In the medieval period, agriculture was placed on a solid foundation by

the State which brought about a system of land measurement and land
classification, beneficial both to the rulers and to the tillers.
Water Management in
India
Archaeological evidences show that the practice of water conservation is
deep rooted in the science of ancient India.
Excavations show that the cities of the Indus Valley Civilization had excellent
system of water harvesting and drainage.
•Arthashastra contains records of scientific measurements of rainfall in
various parts of India and its application to the country’s revenue and
relief work

•The Vedas, Upnishads, Puranas,Epics and scholarly writings such as

mayurchitraka and Vrihat Samhita contains vast treasure of scientific
knowledge, documented with many hydrological concepts.

•Rig Veda says that the sun is the cause of rainfall and water (Adityat
Jayate Vrishti) means sun gives rainfall that evaporates by the sun’s rays
move up into the sky for conversion to clouds and rain and then is finally
stored in rivers and oceans.

•In the Vedic period itself, the concepts of evaporation due to the sun’s
rays and winds, the concept of hydrological cycle, the types of clouds,
process of cloud formation, methods of measuring rainfall, nature of
winds, estimation of slopes from river flow and dimension and velocity of
flow were well understood.
Rain water Harvesting
Lecture-11
TEXTILE TECHNOLOGY IN INDIA
•Textile was also a great industry in
ancient India , known for the finest
cloth.
•Archaeological evidence (wood
needles, bones ) found at Mohenjo-
Daro in the Indus Valley were found
around 3000 B.C. Indicates that
cotton was woven at home to
produce yarn and clothing .
•Textiles became one of the major
commodities of trade
•cotton came cloth through the
development of the spinning wheel,
another early contribution of India
•The spinning wheel is an early
machine for turning textile fiber into
thread or yarn, which was then
woven into cloth on a loom.
•During the excavations at Mohenjo-daro a
small fragment of cotton fabric and a small
piece of cotton string in the neck of a vessel
were recovered.

• The quality of both fabric and the string

leaves no doubt that a mature textile craft had
existed in the Indus Valley civilization.

•With textiles also came the art of making and

the use of dyes and colors.

•Cotton finally spread to England.

•The medieval Arabs took up the art of textiles

from India, and their word quattan gave the
English word cotton.
•India has been known for its brilliant and high
quality cloth for hundreds of years.
 THE ANTIQUITY OF CLOTH MAKING

•Making saris from silk, or with colored dyes,

or embroidered with gold or silver thread
•Cotton was greatly cultivated in fields near
Kashi (Varanasi), an important center for
textiles

• The skills of the spinners and weavers

enabled them to make them extremely fine
clothing.

•Later, Kashi also became a major center for

its silk manufacturing and products.
•The area of Gandhara (modern
northwest India and Pakistan) and
Vahika, near the Sindhu, Sutlej and Beas
Rivers, were also known for its fine
woollen chadars and shawls.
•Many centers for the production of
textiles existed. Kashmir was known for
its woolen weaves and embroidery
•Places like Benares, Ujjain, Indore, and
Paithan near Aurangabad, were known
for their fine silks, and places in the
south like Kanchipuram. Rajasthan also
specialized in all manner of patterned
prints and dyed cloths, and also in
carpet-making.
Traders from ancient Greece, Egypt and Arabia ordered cotton cloth
from India. They were especially known for the sheer quality of the
cloth.
 DYES AND COLORING AGENTS

•Further archeological evidence from Mohenjo-daro shows that the

knowledge of mordant dying was in existence from the second millennium
BCE.
•The use of block printing on textiles in India was known since 3000 BCE.
•Some historians view India as the original home of block printing.
•India was in the forefront of the
textile industry till the end of the
18th century.

• This was one of the most

competitive industries of the
country and probably the most
successful textile industry of the
world.

• It’s beautiful and colored textile

products of cotton, silk, wool, and
jute attracted the whole world .

• The Indus Valley people were

acquainted with the red color of the
madder root.
•There were more than 100 coloring
agents of both mineral and vegetable
origin and possibly a few of animal
origin for dyeing the fabrics and other
articles of everyday use.

•Indigo was the other most famous

dye extracted from the plant indigo-
fera Tinctoria for dyeing various
shades of blue.
TEXTILES WERE A MAJOR FACTOR IN INDIA’S TRADE WITH OTHER COUNTRIES

•Ancient Rome was known for having good trade relations with ancient India.

•The chronicles of the Greek show that a variety of spices, good textiles (muslins
and cottons), along with iron, gems and ivory were traded.
•Rome also supplied in return such things as cut gems, coral, perfumes, papyrus,
copper, tin, and lead.

• Payments were generally in gold or silver coins at that time.

•It is interesting to note that Romans were great fans of Indian textiles, to the
point that much of the gold of Rome was drained from its coffers to buy Indian
textiles.

•Some of these gold coins of early Rome have been found in several parts of
southern India.

•Roman records indicate that at one point the Roman senate banned the import
of Indian muslin to stop the drain of their gold.
•Records also mention the Gujarat port of Barygaza (Broach) as a place
that exported fine Indian textiles.

•It is also reported that the attractiveness of fast-dyed, multi-colored

Indian prints on cotton in Europe as one of the factors that lead to the
formation of the London East India Company in 1600, followed by the
Dutch and French counterparts thereafter.

•However, by the late 1600s, there was such overwhelming demand for
Indian textiles, no matter whether from Bengal, Patna, or Surat, that
ultimately the French and English wool and silk merchants prevailed on
their governments to ban the importation of these imported cottons
from India.

Even today the uniqueness of India’s textiles, whether in shoulder bags,

purses, saris, shawls, clothes, sheets, carpets, etc., remains high in
global interest and of prized possession.
PYROTECHNIQUES IN ANCIENT INDIA
•A part from the ancient Sanskrit texts which referred to Saltpetre as
“Agnichurna“, its usage for producing smoke (to fight the enemy during
war) was documented 2300 years ago in Kautilya Arthasastra.

• Also, Chinese texts dating back to 7th century had acknowledged that
Indians were aware of Saltpetre and its usage for producing purple flames
implying that it might be used for aesthetic purposes apart from military.
•Over the next few centuries, Saltpetre was experimented by alchemists,
and there are Chinese texts dating back to the 9th century which
mentions the usage of Saltpetre enclosed in bamboo tube to create loud
explosions.

•As the Chinese continued to innovate further with different form factors
like sparklers, light fountains, rockets etc, they quickly sensed the business
opportunity & began to export them to Europe & India.

•By 16th century, fireworks had become one of the major sources of
entertainment for Indian royalty.

•Grand fireworks during functions (especially weddings) costing a fortune

had become a norm.

•In 1609, Adil Shah spent a whopping (huge) Rs 80,000 on fireworks alone.
Dara Shikoh’s marriage in 1633
Few Paintings from 16th & 17th centuries suggest that fireworks were
part of celebrations/festivals by the masses (royalty as well as non-
royalty) and not limited to any particular religion or gender.
MUGHAL WOMEN
•Elaborate description of fireworks in mythological works from this period also
brings in imaginations of pyrotechnic exuberance, familiar to the writers of this
period, around these epic events.
• For example, a popular sixteenth century Marathi poem by the saint Eknath called
“Rukmini Swayamvara,” describing Rukmini’s wedding with Krishna, mentions a
range of fireworks, from rockets to the equivalent of the modern phooljhadi.
•By the eighteenth century, fireworks began to become de rigueur in grand
scale Diwali entertainments organised by rulers.

• Peshwayanchi Bakhar, a Maratha chronicle text, mentions a recounted

account of Diwali celebration in the Kotah (modern Kota, Rajasthan).
Mahadji Skandia in it describes to Peshwa Savai Madhavarao: “The Divali
festival is celebrated for 4 days at Kota, when lacs of lamps are lighted. The
Raja of Kota during these 4 days gives a display of fire-works outside the
premises of his capital. It is called … “Lanka of fire-works”.
•A historical account in Marathi by Rai Bahadur D.B. Parasnis translating
to English fireworks in India mentions the arrival of a skilled English
pyrotechnician in India in 1790 AD, who first impressed the British in
Calcutta with his performance and was then sent by them to Asaf-ud-
Daullah, the Nawab of Oudh, whom he regaled with a spectacular,
continuous display in the sky of colorful fire flowers, fishes, serpents and
stars.
In one display, a mosque arose in the sky.

Thus, when the Mughal empire was breathing its last and the British East
India Company was afoot realizing its designs in India, makers of
fireworks were also the manufacturers of gunpowder, the raw materials
for which were always readily available in India and which was used in
bulk in warfare. By the end of the eighteenth century, however, its
military use was phased out in favor of newer explosives like Dynamite.