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Doping in China

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Doping in China has focused on swimmers[1] and track and field athletes, such as those taught by Ma Junren (the Ma Family Army).[2][3] Three Chinese weightlifters were stripped of their gold Olympic medals at the 2008 Summer Olympics for doping.[4]

China's doping has been attributed to a number of factors, such as the exchange of culture and technology with foreign countries.[5] Some commentators have compared it to doping in East Germany.[6] Discussion of doping scandals involving Chinese athletes in international sports is widely censored in China.[7]

History

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Chinese swimming performances in the 1990s

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FINA, swimming's governing body, said Wang Wei of China's men's team and Wang Luna, Cai Huijue and Zhang Yi of the women's team tested positive for the banned diuretic triamterene and were immediately suspended at the 1998 World Aquatics Championships in Perth, Australia. Yuan Yuan, a swimmer caught by Australian customs on 8 January with human growth hormones in her suitcase, was given a four-year suspension. Coach Zhou Zhewen, who said he put the drugs in the suitcase, was banned for 15 years, although FINA said it would review his case after 10 years. IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch said drug use by Chinese athletes had hurt that country's hopes of holding the Summer Games. Meanwhile, the Chinese Swimming Association said it was deeply shocked by the positive drug tests and would impose "serious punishment" on those involved.[8]

The 1994 Hiroshima games saw seven Chinese swimmers along with a hurdler, a cyclist and two canoeists stripped of their medals after testing positive for the steroid dihydrotestosterone.[9][10]

Ma Junren and his Ma Family Army

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In February 2016, Tencent Sports reported a letter written in 1995 by Wang Junxia and nine other athletes, who claimed that women coached by Ma Junren were forced to take "large doses of illegal drugs over the years".[11][12][2] Yuan Weimin, former Director General of the State General Administration of Sports and Chairperson of the Chinese Olympic Committee, said in his 2009 book that six athletes by former coach Ma Junren were dropped from the 2000 Summer Olympics because they were tested positive for doping.[11]

The International Association of Athletics Federations confirmed it had reach out to the Chinese Athletics Association for verification and would investigate the matter,[3] but the latter did not respond.[13]

Xue Yinxian allegations

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See also: All-time Olympic Games medal table and All-time Asian Games medal table

Systematic doping of Chinese athletes in Olympic Games (and other international sport events) was alleged by former Chinese doctor Xue Yinxian in 2012 and 2017.[14] She has claimed that more than 10,000 athletes in China were doped in the systematic Chinese government doping program and they received performance-enhancing drugs in the 1980s and 1990s. She stated that the entirety of international medals (both in the Olympics and other international competitions) won by Chinese athletes in the 1980s and 1990s must be taken back. This is contrary to previous statements by the Chinese government that had denied involvement in systematic doping, claiming that athletes doped individually. The International Olympic Committee and the World Anti-Doping Agency have investigated these allegations and not found any evidence of state-sanctioned doping.[14][15][16][17][18]

Trimetazidine revelations in Chinese swimming

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Further information: World Anti-Doping Agency § Chinese doping allegations

On 20 April 2024, a coordinated investigation report between The New York Times and German broadcaster ARD revealed that 23 Chinese swimmers tested positive for the banned prescription heart medication trimetazidine (TMZ) at the Chinese Long Course Invitational held in Shijiazhuang City from 31 December 2020 to 3 January 2021.[19] ARD reported that of the 23, 13 competed at the 2020 Summer Olympics seven months later, including Zhang Yufei and Wang Shun, the winner of the women's 200 m butterfly and men's 200 m individual medley, respectively, as well as some members of the gold medal-winning women's 4 × 200 m freestyle relay.[20] After certain delays owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, the China Anti-Doping Agency (CHINADA) logged the 60 urine samples - of which 28 were positive - into WADA's Anti-Doping Administration and Management System (ADAMS) by the WADA-accredited laboratory in Beijing on or around 15 March 2021.[21] Per The New York Times, an email from this date addressed by a CHINADA legal official requested a "counterpart at the world swimming association" to "keep athletes’ information and the case strictly confidential until it is publicly disclosed by CHINADA."[19] The matter remains widely censored in China.[7]

A 31 page report by CHINADA, leaked in September 2021 and verified by The New York Times and ARD, found the investigations were initiated in early April 2021 - two months after the positive tests - in coordination with the Chinese Ministry of Public Security. CHINADA had also informed WADA of its initiation of this investigation per WADA. The Ministry deemed the positive cases were due to contamination, with investigators detecting traces of TMZ in the athletes' hotel kitchen (including spice containers, the extraction fan above the hob and the drains) in Shijiazhuang. While the investigators did not provide evidence of the origins of the drug, it was concluded that the athletes' "unwittingly ingested small amounts" and such, should not be prosecuted. On 15 June 2021, CHINADA officially notified WADA of its decision to accept the contamination defence and not proceed with Anti-Doping Rule Violation (ADRV) cases. In a statement following the release of The New York Times' and ARD's reports, WADA acknowledged that despite not being able to conduct an on-site investigation due to COVID protocols at the time, their remote review found that CHINADA's contamination finding was supported by "the combination of the consistently low concentrations of TMZ as well as no doping pattern with several athletes presenting multiple samples collected over the course of several days which fluctuated between negative and positive (and vice versa)."[22][non-primary source needed]

In 2022, the International Testing Agency (ITA) raised issues with WADA regarding a possible misreporting of the TMZ samples. The WADA Intelligence and Investigations Department subsequently reviewed these issues and "concluded that proper procedures had been followed and that there was no evidence of wrongdoing." The New York Times states that the ITA's review of the case is ongoing.[23]

On 23 April 2024, three days following the publication of The New York Times' and ARD's reports, ARD released a 4 part documentary "The China File."[24] The documentary features USADA's CEO Travis Tygart who suggests of a "cover-up" by WADA and former WADA Director General David Howman who warns that the public's distrust may cause the organisation's (WADA) reputation to "quickly go downhill." Also featured are forensic toxicologist and pharmacologist Fritz Sörgel who deems the contamination explanations to be "implausible" and Munich sports lawyer Thomas Summerer who alleges that it was "obvious that an anti-doping violation had occurred." In a separate statement, Tygart once again criticised WADA of its handling of the positive tests, stating that it "appears to be a devastating stab in the back of clean athletes and a deep betrayal of all athletes who compete fairly and follow the rules.”[19]

USADA, along with the director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy Rahul Gupta, called for an independent investigation into the matter.[25] In a statement on 25 April 2024, WADA responded to these allegations by appointing Eric Cottier as an independent prosecutor to review its handling of the case.[26] USADA called the appointment "self-serving."[26]

In a testimony on 25 June 2024, U.S. Olympic swimmers Michael Phelps and Allison Schmitt told U.S. Congress that they have lost faith in WADA's ability to penalize athletes doping.[27] In particular, Schmitt, a member of the U.S. 4 × 200 m freestyle relay in Tokyo that finished second to the Chinese, said she "will be haunted by this podium finish that may have been impacted by doping."[27] In July 2024, World Aquatics confirmed that its executive director was subpoenaed to testify to U.S. authorities as part of a criminal investigation into the Chinese swimmers' doping tests.[28] It was reported in July 2024 that the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) opened an investigation into whether the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) did not adequately investigate the doping case involving Chinese swimmers.[29]

Disqualified medalists

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Listed below are athletes who have had their medals being stripped due to doping violations.

Olympic Games

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Main articles: 2000 Summer Olympics medal table, 2008 Summer Olympics medal table, and List of stripped Olympic medals
Medal Name Sport Event Date
 Gold Chen Xiexia Weightlifting Women's 48 kg 9 August 2008
 Gold Liu Chunhong Weightlifting Women's 69 kg 13 August 2008
 Gold Cao Lei Weightlifting Women's 75 kg 15 August 2008

Asian Games

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Main article: Doping at the Asian Games
Name NOC Sport Banned substance Medals Ref
Han Qing  China Athletics Dihydrotestosterone 1st place, gold medalist(s) (Women's 400 m hurdles) [30]
Zhang Lei  China Canoeing Dihydrotestosterone 1st place, gold medalist(s) (Men's C-1 500 m)
1st place, gold medalist(s) (Men's C-1 1000 m)
2nd place, silver medalist(s) (Men's C-2 500 m) 		[30]
Qiu Suoren  China Canoeing Dihydrotestosterone 2nd place, silver medalist(s) (Men's C-2 1000 m) [30]
Wang Yan  China Cycling Dihydrotestosterone 1st place, gold medalist(s) (Women's sprint) [30]
Fu Yong  China Swimming Dihydrotestosterone 3rd place, bronze medalist(s) (Men's 400 m individual medley) [31]
Hu Bin  China Swimming Dihydrotestosterone 1st place, gold medalist(s) (Men's 50 m freestyle) [31]
Lü Bin  China Swimming Dihydrotestosterone 1st place, gold medalist(s) (Women's 50 m freestyle)
1st place, gold medalist(s) (Women's 200 m freestyle)
1st place, gold medalist(s) (Women's 200 m individual medley)
1st place, gold medalist(s) (Women's 4 × 100 m freestyle relay)
2nd place, silver medalist(s) (Women's 100 m freestyle)
2nd place, silver medalist(s) (Women's 100 m backstroke) 		[31]
Xiong Guoming  China Swimming Dihydrotestosterone 1st place, gold medalist(s) (Men's 200 m freestyle)
1st place, gold medalist(s) (Men's 200 m individual medley)
1st place, gold medalist(s) (Men's 400 m individual medley)
1st place, gold medalist(s) (Men's 4 × 200 m freestyle relay)
2nd place, silver medalist(s) (Men's 4 × 100 m freestyle relay) 		[31]
Yang Aihua  China Swimming Dihydrotestosterone 2nd place, silver medalist(s) (Women's 400 m freestyle) [31]
Zhang Bin  China Swimming Dihydrotestosterone 1st place, gold medalist(s) (Men's 200 m butterfly) [31]
Zhou Guanbin  China Swimming Dihydrotestosterone 1st place, gold medalist(s) (Women's 400 m freestyle)
2nd place, silver medalist(s) (Women's 800 m freestyle) 		[31]

Individual Chinese doping cases

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Reactions

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Discussion of doping scandals involving Chinese athletes in international sports is widely censored in China.[7] Jinxia Dong, an associate professor at Peking University, said that the doping programme was a by-product of the "open door" policy which saw the rapid expansion within China of modern cultural and technological exchanges with foreign countries.[5] Former East German swim coaches admitted to systematic doping on their athletes; among them, coach Klaus Rudolf played a significant role in developing China's swimming programme.[39]

Bioethicist Maxwell J. Mehlman in his 2009 book The Price of Perfection, states that "In effect China has replaced East Germany as the target of Western condemnation of state-sponsored doping".[6]: 134  Mehlman quotes an anthropologist as saying that "When China became a 'world sports power', American journalists found it all too easy to slip China into the slot of the 'Big Red Machine' formally occupied by Soviet Bloc teams".[6]: 134 

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "China's swimmers racing to escape country's doping past". Reuters. 19 July 2021. Archived from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 3 August 2021. China's swimming programme has seen its reputation tarnished by a series of scandals, most notably when one female swimmer was caught with 13 vials of human growth hormone at Sydney airport ahead of the 1998 world championships in Perth.
  2. ^ a b Tatlow, Didi Kirsten (24 February 2016). "Doping Claims Involving Chinese Track Stars Re-emerge, Decades Later". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
  3. ^ a b "中国"马家军"昔日联名信曝光禁药丑闻 国际田联称将调查其真实性" [China's "Ma Family Army" past joint letter exposes doping scandal, IAAF says it will investigate its authenticity]. Reuters. 5 February 2016. Archived from the original on 19 April 2023. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
  4. ^ "3 Chinese weightlifters lose 2008 Olympic titles for doping". Associated Press. 12 January 2017. Archived from the original on 27 July 2022. Retrieved 3 August 2021. for doping at their home 2008 Beijing Games
  5. ^ a b Jinxia Dong (2003). Women, Sport, and Society in Modern China: Holding Up More Than Half the Sky. Psychology Press. pp. 153–. ISBN 978-0-7146-5235-1. Retrieved 30 July 2012.
  6. ^ a b c Maxwell J. Mehlman (21 May 2009). The Price of Perfection: Individualism and Society in the Era of Biomedical Enhancement. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 134. ISBN 978-0-8018-9263-9. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
  7. ^ a b c Pierson, David (3 July 2024). "An Uproar Over a Chinese Doping Case, Except in China". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 10 July 2024. Retrieved 10 July 2024.
  8. ^ "4 Chinese Swimmers Suspended for Drugs". Los Angeles Times. 15 January 1998. Archived from the original on 7 August 2024. Retrieved 7 August 2024.
  9. ^ "ASIAN GAMES". The Washington Post. 4 December 1994. Retrieved 3 August 2024.
  10. ^ Jennings, Andrew (1996). The New Lords of the Rings: Olympic Corruption and How to Buy Gold Medals. Pocket Books. p. 233. ISBN 978-0-671-85571-0. Retrieved 31 July 2012.
  11. ^ a b "独家-王军霞领衔举报马家军强迫使用兴奋剂". Tencent Sports. Archived from the original on 1 July 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2017.
  12. ^ Armitage, Catherine (6 February 2016). "'We took drugs': Chinese athletes confess to doping in secret letter". The Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 3 August 2021. Retrieved 3 August 2021.
  13. ^ Bloom, Ben (25 February 2016). "Athletics world records blow as Wang Junxia 'admits' being part of Chinese state-sponsored doping regime". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 13 August 2016. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
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  15. ^ Ingle, Sean (23 October 2017). "Wada is accused of sitting on mass China doping claims for five years". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
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  17. ^ "WADA to investigate claims of systematic doping in China". Reuters. 24 October 2017. Archived from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2024.
  18. ^ "Former doctor reveals more than 10,000 Chinese athletes were doping". Sports Illustrated. 24 October 2017. Archived from the original on 23 July 2021. Retrieved 23 April 2024.
  19. ^ a b c Schmidt, Michael S.; Panja, Tariq (20 April 2024). "Top Chinese Swimmers Tested Positive for Banned Drug, Then Won Olympic Gold". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 10 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
  20. ^ Mebus, Hajo Seppelt, Nick Butler, Lea Löffler und Jörg. "Recherche der ARD-Dopingredaktion: "Die Akte China" - Fragen und Antworten". sportschau.de (in German). Archived from the original on 10 May 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ "WADA Contamination case of swimmers from China Fact Sheet" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 July 2024. Retrieved 11 July 2024.
  22. ^ "WADA statement on case of 23 swimmers from China". World Anti Doping Agency. 20 April 2024. Archived from the original on 11 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
  23. ^ "23 Chinese swimmers tested positive for banned substance before 2021 Olympics: WADA". ABC News. Archived from the original on 10 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
  24. ^ Mebus, Hajo Seppelt, Nick Butler, Lea Löffler und Jörg. ""Die Akte China": Massendoping-Verdacht in China - WADA handelt nicht". sportschau.de (in German). Archived from the original on 14 June 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ Schmidt, Michael S.; Panja, Tariq (22 April 2024). "Top Biden Official Calls for Inquiry Into Chinese Doping Case". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
  26. ^ a b "Anti-doping watchdog asks Swiss prosecutor to review its handling of Chinese Olympic swimming case". Associated Press. 25 April 2024. Retrieved 18 August 2024.
  27. ^ a b "Michael Phelps calls out 'deeply rooted, systemic problems' with WADA ahead of Paris Olympics". ABC News. 26 June 2024. Archived from the original on 5 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
  28. ^ Dunbar, Graham; Pells, Eddie (4 July 2024). "World swimming federation confirms US federal investigation into Chinese swimmers' doping tests". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 6 July 2024. Retrieved 4 July 2024.
  29. ^ "What is WADA, why is the FBI investigating it and why is it feuding with US anti-doping officials?". AP News. 25 July 2024. Archived from the original on 5 August 2024. Retrieved 5 August 2024.
  30. ^ a b c d "Chinese hand out long bans". The Independent. 21 December 1994. Archived from the original on 11 August 2019. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
  31. ^ a b c d e f g "China ban seven swimmers for two years". New Straits Times. 8 December 1994. Archived from the original on 22 July 2021. Retrieved 14 April 2013.
  32. ^ Wayne Wilson; Ed Derse (2001). Doping in Elite Sport: The Politics of Drugs in the Olympic Movement. Human Kinetics. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-7360-0329-2.
  33. ^ "Disgraced Wu banned". BBC News. 18 July 2000. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2012.
  34. ^ "China's Li Zhesi Tests Positive for EPO". Swimming World News. 9 June 2012. Archived from the original on 17 August 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2024.
  35. ^ "China's top backstroke specialist banned for doping". ESPN. 27 June 2008. Archived from the original on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 29 July 2012.
  36. ^ "Chinese Swimmer Tests Positive, 2 Others Kicked Out of Rio for Doping". WRC-TV. 14 August 2016. Archived from the original on 26 July 2022. Retrieved 17 February 2021.
  37. ^ a b Hersh, Phil (11 February 1992). "Chinese Skater: Medal, No Shame". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on 27 February 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2024.
  38. ^ a b "China: Alles erlaubt". Der Spiegel (in German). 3 August 1992. Archived from the original on 26 October 2018. Retrieved 23 April 2024.
  39. ^ Hersh, Philip; Writer, Tribune Olympic Sports (5 September 1994). "Discontent Refuses to Wilt". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on 23 April 2024. Retrieved 4 August 2021.
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