NUTRIENT
REQUIREMENTS
OF DAIRY
CATTLE
Eighth Revised Edition
Committee on Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle
Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources
Division on Earth and Life Studies
A Consensus Study Report of
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, DC
www.nap.edu
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This study was supported by Ajinomoto Animal Nutrition North America, Inc.; American Dairy Science Association Foundation; BASF; Cargill, Inc.; DSM; Elanco Animal Health; Evonik Industries AG; Hubbard Feeds; Innovation Center for U.S. Dairy; Institute for Feed Education & Research; Kemin Industries; National Research Support Project (NRSP-9); Novus International; Perdue Agribusiness; U.S. Food and Drug Administration; and Zinpro Corporation. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of any organization or agency that provided support for the project.
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-67777-6
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-67777-7
Digital Object Identifier: https://doi.org/10.17226/25806
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Suggested citation: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2021. Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle: Eighth Revised Edition. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/25806.
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COMMITTEE ON NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF DAIRY CATTLE
RICHARD A. ERDMAN, Co-Chair, University of Maryland, College Park (retired)
WILLIAM P. WEISS, Co-Chair, The Ohio State University, Wooster (retired)
MICHAEL S. ALLEN, Michigan State University, East Lansing (retired)
LOUIS ARMENTANO, University of Wisconsin–Madison (retired)
JAMES K. DRACKLEY, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
JEFFREY L. FIRKINS, The Ohio State University, Columbus
MARY BETH HALL, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Madison, Wisconsin
MARK D. HANIGAN, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg
ERMIAS KEBREAB, University of California, Davis
PAUL J. KONONOFF, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
HÉLÈNE LAPIERRE, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Sherbrooke, Quebec
MICHAEL J. VANDEHAAR, Michigan State University, East Lansing
Staff
CAMILLA YANDOC ABLES, Study Director
ROBIN A. SCHOEN, Board Director
JENNA BRISCOE, Research Associate
SARAH KWON, Senior Program Assistant
BOARD ON AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
Chair
CHARLES W. RICE, Kansas State University, Manhattan
Members
SHANE C. BURGESS, University of Arizona, Tucson
SUSAN CAPALBO, Oregon State University, Corvallis
GAIL CZARNECKI-MAULDEN, Nestlé Purina PetCare, St. Louis, MO
GEBISA EJETA, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
JAMES S. FAMIGLIETTI, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena
FRED GOULD (NAS), North Carolina State University, Raleigh
DOUGLAS B. JACKSON-SMITH, The Ohio State University, Wooster
JAMES W. JONES (NAE), University of Florida, Gainesville
STEPHEN S. KELLEY, North Carolina State University, Raleigh
JAN E. LEACH, Colorado State University, Fort Collins
JILL J. McCLUSKEY, Washington State University, Richland
KAREN I. PLAUT, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
JIM E. RIVIERE (NAM), Kansas State University, Manhattan
Staff
ROBIN A. SCHOEN, Director
CAMILLA YANDOC ABLES, Senior Program Officer
KARA N. LANEY, Senior Program Officer
JENNA BRISCOE, Research Associate
SARAH KWON, Senior Program Assistant
Contents
Reporting and Application of the Requirements
Equations for Predicting Dry Matter Intake
Feeding Management, Feeding Behavior, and Environmental Factors Affecting Feed Intake
Estimating the Digestible Energy Value for Feeds and Diets
Rumen Metabolism, Digestion, and Absorption
Model Used for Fatty Acid Digestion
Lactating Cow Responses to Dietary Fat
Dietary Fat Interventions and Reproduction
Dairy Fat and Human Health and Possible Modification of Milk Fat
Neutral Detergent-Soluble Carbohydrates
Ruminal and Total-Tract Digestion
Prediction of Ruminal Carbohydrate Digestibility
Physically Effective Neutral Detergent Fiber
Major Differences from the Previous Version
Metabolizable Protein and Amino Acid Supply
Postabsorptive Use of Metabolizable Protein and Amino Acid
Meeting the Recommendations for Metabolizable Protein and Amino Acid
Effects of Protein on Reproduction
Urea Recycling and Energy Cost
10 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS OF THE YOUNG CALF
Calculation of Metabolizable Energy Values of Feeds
Validation of Model with Experimental Data
Practical Feeding Considerations
Other Aspects of Calf Nutrition
Energy and Protein Requirements for Growing Dairy Heifers
Effects of Plane of Nutrition on Future Milk Production
Total Requirements for Metabolizable Energy and Metabolizable Protein
Target Body Weights at Breeding and Calving
Predicting Gain from Available Metabolizable Energy and Metabolizable Protein
Model Limitations and Research Needs
Metabolic and Physiologic Status of the Transition Cow
Nutrient Requirements for Pregnancy and Transition
Etiology and Nutritional Prevention of Metabolic Disorders
Group Housed with Total Mixed Rations
Feeding and Automatic Milking Systems
Genetically Engineered Crops and Dairy Cattle
14 DAIRY CATTLE NUTRITION AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Essential Oils and Other Phytonutrients
17 AGENTS THAT ARE TOXIC TO DAIRY CATTLE
Plant Secondary Compounds and Toxic Agents Produced in Plants
Microbes as Toxic Agents in Feed or Water
Chemical and Physical Analyses
19 NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF FEEDS
Statistical Analysis and Generation of Data
20 MODEL DESCRIPTION AND EVALUATION
Nutrient Utilization and Animal Production
Model Variance Relative to Animal Performance and Diet Specifications
Figures and Tables
FIGURES
3-1 Feed energy supply system for dairy cattle
3-3 Body condition scoring chart
4-1 Residuals for final prediction model used for FA digestion
5-1 Carbohydrate fractions in feeds include NDF and NDSC
5-2 Factors affecting the optimal forage NDF concentration of diets for lactating cows
6-1 Observed, predicted, and residual (observed minus predicted) microbial N (MicN) flows (g/d)
6-3 Residual errors for predictions of true milk protein by Equation 6-6
11-1 Fat and protein content of EBW in Holstein cattle
15-1 Schematic representation of the dry milling ethanol process for corn ethanol production
TABLES
3-1 Proportion of Starch Digested at Base (dStarch_Starch_base) for Various Starch Sources
4-1 Calculated Total-Tract Digestibility Coefficients of FA
4-2 Effect of Amount of Supplemental Fat on Digestibility of FA in Supplemental Fat
6-1 Duodenal EN (g N/d) Flows from Cattle as Reported
7-1 Revised AC for Ca from Mineral Supplements and Feed Ingredient Classes
7-2 Description of Data Used to Generate Mg Equations
7-3 Concentrations of Cr in Common Feeds (mg Cr/kg DM)
7-4 Comparison Between Current and Previous (NRC, 2001) Zn Requirements for Dry and Lactating Cows
8-1 Factors for Converting Common Sources of Vitamins into IU
8-2 Intake, Duodenal Flow, and Apparent Ruminal Synthesis of B Vitamins in Dairy Cows (mg/kg of DMI)
9-1 Equations Used to Predict FWI (kg/d) in Dairy Cattle
9-2 Drinking Water Standards for Humans and Upper Potentially Concernable Concentrations for Cattle
9-3 Guidelines for TDS in Water for Dairy Cattle Consumption
9-4 Elements and Major and Minor Ionic Species That Are Common of Ground Waters
9-5 Guidelines for NO3− and NO3-N in Drinking Water for Dairy Cattle
10-1 Ratios of EBW to BW and Energy Requirements for Maintenance
10-2 Effect of Environmental Temperature on Energy Requirement of Young Calves
10-3 Studies Comprising the Data Used to Relate DMI to Microbial N Flow
10-4 Composition of Some Common Ingredients Used in the Manufacture of MRs
10-6 Studies Used to Validate Prediction Models
10-7 Daily Energy and Protein Requirements of Young Replacement Calves Fed Only Milk or MR
10-11 Daily Energy and Protein Requirements of Large-Breed Veal Calves Fed Only Milk or MR
10-12 ACs for Minerals Used for Young Calves
10-14 Concentrations of Minerals and Fat-Soluble Vitamins in Whole Milk (per Liter)
10-15 Recommended AIs for Fat-Soluble Vitamins
10-16 Example Nutrient Specifications for Typical Starter Varying in CP and Starch Content
10-18 Regression Equations to Estimate IgG in Colostrum Using BRIX Readings
11-1 Publications Used to Develop Equations for Composition of Gain in Dairy Heifers
11-2 Target Weights (kg), Ages, and ADGs (kg/d) for Growing Dairy Cattle
11-3 Requirements for Energy and Protein in Heifers with MatBW of 700 kg
11-4 Requirements for Energy and Protein in Heifers with MatBW of 520 kg
12-1 Average Composition of Colostrum
15-1 Major Coproducts Resulting from the Dry Grain Corn-Milling Process
19-2 AA, TFA, and FA Content of Some Feedstuffs Commonly Fed to Dairy Cattle
20-1 General Location and Nutrient Abbreviations Used for Constructing Model Terms
20-2 Model Abbreviations for Diet and Digestive Macronutrients
20-3 Model Abbreviations for Diet and Digestive AAs and FAs
20-4 Model Abbreviations for Maintenance Use of Energy and Protein
20-6 Model Abbreviations for Minerals and Vitamins
20-7 Feed Categories Used for Model Calculations
20-9 Heats of Combustion (Mcal/kg) for Digested Nutrients
20-11 A Summary of the Animal Characteristics for the Evaluation Data Used
20-12 A Summary of the Dietary Characteristics for the Evaluation Data
20-14 Residual Analyses for Predictions of Ruminal Outflow of AAs (g/d) by Equation 20-87
20-15 Residual Analyses for Predictions of Fecal Nutrient Output (kg/d)
20-16 Residual Analyses for Predictions of Milk and Milk Component Production
Preface
The Committee on Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle, in accordance with the Statement of Task (see Appendix A) developed the eighth revised edition of the Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle and accompanying software model. Although extensively revised and in many cases expanded, most chapters in the previous edition (NRC, 2001) are included in this version. Although nutrient interactions abound, the committee maintained the approach of separating discussion (chapters) mainly by nutrient (e.g., energy, protein, minerals), but some chapters discuss specific classes of animals (calves or transition cows). New chapters on production systems, feed by-products, additives, toxic agents, and feed analysis were added. Chapters include a review of the literature (mostly on papers published after 2000) with an emphasis on justification of requirements and equations. The software model was extensively revised from the previous edition to include all of the revisions discussed in the text.
Information in some chapters is not directly used in the software, but they are in-depth reviews of topics related to the nutrition and feeding of dairy cattle. Most chapters include equations that were incorporated into the software to estimate nutrient supply, requirements (or responses), and other outputs that may have value to nutritionists and other users. The availability of the needed inputs was paramount when deciding on which equations to include. The inputs required are usually available from on-farm data or from commercial feed testing laboratories. For some outputs, published equations were evaluated and, if appropriate, incorporated directly into the model (e.g., estimated water consumption). When multiple published equations were available, the committee evaluated the inference space of the equations, the availability of the needed inputs, and fit statistics and chose the ones that it thought were best. In some cases, users are allowed to choose specific equations. The committee attempted to describe strengths and weaknesses of various equations. For other outputs, data from mostly published sources were collated, and new equations were derived from the database (e.g., milk protein yield responses). Last, in situations where very little data were available, equations may represent simple mean responses (e.g., some mineral requirements). Adequate information is in the text so that users can determine how equations were derived.
As with previous editions, changes were not made to requirements (or recommendations) unless new data or a reanalysis of older data indicated changes were necessary. However, most nutrient requirements underwent at least minor revision. The greatest changes occurred with protein. The protein/amino acid supply and requirement system was completely revised compared to the seventh edition, with much greater emphasis on amino acids rather than protein. Dry matter intake equations were developed for all classes of cattle, and in some cases, include feed factors in addition to animal characteristics. The calf requirement system for protein, energy, and minerals underwent extensive revision. To estimate environmental impact, methane production is estimated, as is manure excretion of nitrogen and phosphorus. The feed composition database is completely revised and includes estimates of variation and ranges for many common feeds. Although this edition is a significant and comprehensive update, substantial gaps in knowledge still exist, and these were pointed out in specific chapters. This was done to not only encourage research in those areas but also indicate why requirements or supply functions were not presented for certain nutrients.
The software does not use stochastic processes; however, estimates of variance for equation coefficients and various fit statistics are included. Users can use that information to determine the amount of confidence they assign to specific estimates. A major goal in the development of the feed composition data tables was to generate accurate estimates of variation by rigorously screening data. For many minerals and vitamins, inadequate data were available to derive accurate estimates of variation, and to indicate the level of uncertainty in those situations the term Adequate Intake was used in place of requirement.
The software model is integral to the book. The interface is similar to the 2001 model, but output has been extensively revised and provides more information than previously and in a user-friendly format. As with all software, the output is only as accurate as the inputs, and users are encouraged to use actual data, rather than defaults, whenever possible. This revision and its accompanying software should be of value to teachers and students of dairy cattle nutrition, field nutritionists and veterinarians, nutrition scientists, and ultimately producers and consumers of dairy products.
Richard A. Erdman and William P. Weiss, Co-Chairs
Committee on Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle
Acknowledgments
This Consensus Study Report was reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine in making each published report as sound as possible and to ensure that it meets the institutional standards for quality, objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process.
We thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
Although the reviewers listed above provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations of this report nor did they see the final draft before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Jesse Goff, Iowa State University (emeritus). He was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with the standards of the National Academies and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content rests entirely with the authoring committee and the National Academies.
The committee thanks the American Dairy Science Association (ADSA) Foundation for major financial support and for assisting on fundraising. Substantial financial support was also provided by Ajinomoto Animal Nutrition North America Inc.; BASF; Cargill Inc.; DSM; Elanco Animal Health; Evonik Industries AG; Hubbard Feeds; Institute for Feed Education & Research; Innovation Center for U.S. Dairy; Kemin Industries; Novus International; Perdue Agribusiness; U.S. Food and Drug Administration; Zinpro Corporation; and internal funding. The committee is indebted to the following commercial laboratories that graciously provided raw feed composition data: Cumberland Valley Analytical Services (Waynesboro, Pennsylvania); Dairy One (Ithaca, New York); Dairyland Laboratories Inc. (Arcadia, Wisconsin); and Rock River Laboratory Inc. (Watertown, Wisconsin).
The assistance of the National Animal Nutrition Program (NANP), a National Research Support Project (NRSP-9) administered by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s National Institute of Food and Agriculture, was vital to the completion of this project. Specifically, Veridiana Daley, Robin White, and Huyen Tran, all with the NANP, developed several equations used in the calf submodel and to estimate ruminal digestibility of nutrients and developed methods to screen the feed databases that are used in the model. Luis Moraes (The Ohio State University) and Adelyn Fleming (Virginia Tech) contributed to development and evaluation of equations used to estimate protein and amino acid supply. Jim Quigley (Cargill Animal Nutrition) assisted with the calf chapter, Christiane Girard (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada) assisted with the vitamin chapter, and Roger Martineau (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada) assisted with building the database
used to develop protein and amino acid equations and in evaluation of the resulting equations. Mike Van Amburgh (Cornell University) and the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System team provided amino acid and fatty acid data for the ingredient library.
Last, the committee acknowledges the dedication of Camilla Yandoc Ables, National Academies senior program officer, to this project. She kept the project organized and provided excellent guidance and sometimes a friendly push to keep things moving. The committee also thanks Robin Schoen, director of the Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, for her support during the process.