Associations between Bisphenol A Exposure and Reproductive Hormones among Female Workers
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Section
2.1. Study Population
2.2. In Person Interview
2.3. Measurement of BPA Exposure
2.3.1. TWA8 among Exposed Workers
2.3.2. Urine BPA Measurement
2.4. Serum Hormones Analysis
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Results
Characteristics | Categories | Exposed (n = 106) | Unexposed (n = 250) | p |
---|---|---|---|---|
Site | Wuxi | 19 (17.9) | 42 (16.8) | 0.1 |
Yueyang | 58 (54.7) | 111 (44.4) | ||
Yixing | 29 (27.4) | 97 (38.8) | ||
Education | Middle schoool and below | 22 (20.8) | 120 (48.0) | <0.0001 |
High school | 66 (62.3) | 96 (38.4) | ||
College and above | 18 (16.9) | 34 (13.6) | ||
Age (Years) | 18–30 | 38 (35.9) | 86 (34.4) | 0.9 |
31–40 | 52 (49.1) | 129 (51.6) | ||
41–45 | 16 (15.0) | 35 (14.0) | ||
Marriage | Unmarried | 8 (7.6) | 17 (6.8) | 0.5 |
In marriage | 95 (89.6) | 218 (87.2) | ||
Divorced or widowed | 3 (2.8) | 15 (6.0) | ||
Menstrual cycle | Regular | 94 (88.7) | 217 (88.6) | 1.0 |
Not regular | 12 (11.3) | 28 (11.4) | ||
Passive smoking | Yes | 47 (44.3) | 118 (47.4) | 0.6 |
No | 59 (55.7) | 131 (52.6) | ||
Current contraceptive methods usage | None | 6 (5.9) | 16 (6.7) | 0.4 |
Pills | 7 (6.9) | 7 (2.9) | ||
IUD | 60 (59.4) | 137 (57.1) | ||
Condom | 27 (26.7) | 79 (32.9) | ||
Others | 1 (1.1) | 1 (0.4) | ||
Menarche age * | 14.1 ± 1.5 | 14.2 ± 1.8 | 0.4 | |
Year of working * | 8.5 ± 6.8 | 9.5 ± 6.5 | 0.2 | |
BPA | Detection rate | 88.9 | 45.2 | <0.0001 |
geometric mean(95% CI) (ug/g cr) | 22.2 | 0.9 | <0.0001 | |
(12.4, 39.8) | (0.7, 1.1) |
BPA Exposure | FSH (mIU/mL) | LH (mIU/mL) | E2 (pg/mL) | PRL (ng/mL) | PROG (ng/mL) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
By occupational exposure history | |||||
Unexposed (n = 250) | 1.05 ± 0.83 | 1.56 ± 0.98 | 3.71 ± 0.50 | 2.67 ± 0.68 | 1.00 ± 1.99 |
Exposed | |||||
Twa8 < 5 (n = 61) | 1.22 ± 0.78 | 1.75 ± 0.93 | 3.50 ± 0.43 | 2.70 ± 0.72 | 0.96 ± 1.86 |
Twa8 >= 5 (n = 45) | 1.05 ± 0.62 | 1.27 ± 0.84 * | 3.87 ± 0.41 * | 2.74 ± 0.62 | 1.51 ± 1.87 |
By urine BPA level | |||||
<limit of detection (LOD) (n = 146) | 1.20 ± 0.70 | 1.57 ± 0.99 | 3.68 ± 0.45 | 2.59 ± 0.63 # | 0.78 ± 2.01 |
LOD-75th (n = 103) | 0.97 ± 0.88 | 1.58 ± 0.97 | 3.64 ± 0.56 | 2.63 ± 0.74 | 1.06 ± 1.78 |
>=75th (n = 82) | 1.02 ± 0.88 | 1.60 ± 0.96 | 3.75 ± 0.47 | 2.85 ± 0.68 | 1.36 ± 2.06 |
Hormones | Model 1 | Model 2 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Coefficient | p | Coefficient | p | |
All participants | ||||
FSH | −0.03 | 0.17 | −0.01 | 0.47 |
LH | −0.006 | 0.79 | −0.005 | 0.81 |
E2 | 0.02 | 0.18 | 0.01 | 0.20 |
PRL | 0.04 | 0.009 | 0.04 | 0.02 |
PROG | 0.15 | 0.002 | 0.11 | 0.01 |
Among exposed group | ||||
FSH | −0.03 | 0.38 | −0.03 | 0.38 |
LH | 0.04 | 0.42 | 0.05 | 0.28 |
E2 | 0.04 | 0.06 | 0.04 | 0.05 |
PRL | 0.06 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.05 |
PROG | 0.20 | 0.04 | 0.19 | 0.03 |
Among unexposed group | ||||
FSH | −0.10 | 0.001 | −0.07 | 0.006 |
LH | −0.03 | 0.44 | −0.03 | 0.39 |
E2 | 0.02 | 0.18 | 0.02 | 0.21 |
PRL | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.11 |
PROG | 0.21 | 0.004 | 0.15 | 0.02 |
3.2. Discussion
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Abbreviations
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Calafat, A.M.; Ye, X.; Wong, L.-Y.; Reidy, J.A.; Needham, L.L. Exposure of the us population to Bisphenol A and 4-tertiary-octylphenol: 2003–2004. Environ. Health Perspect. 2008, 116, 39–44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vandenberg, L.N.; Hauser, R.; Marcus, M.; Olea, N.; Welshons, W.V. Human exposure to Bisphenol A (BPA). Reprod. Toxicol. 2007, 24, 139–177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wetherill, Y.B.; Akingbemi, B.T.; Kanno, J.; McLachlan, J.A.; Nadal, A.; Sonnenschein, C.; Watson, C.S.; Zoeller, R.T.; Belcher, S.M. In vitro molecular mechanisms of Bisphenol A action. Reprod. Toxicol. 2007, 24, 178–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Khurana, S.; Ranmal, S.; Ben-Jonathan, N. Exposure of newborn male and female rats to environmental estrogens: Delayed and sustained hyperprolactinemia and alterations in estrogen receptor expression 1. Endocrinology 2000, 141, 4512–4517. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Kawato, S. Endocrine disrupters as disrupters of brain function: A neurosteroid viewpoint. Environ. Sci. 2004, 11, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Vom Saal, F.S.; Hughes, C. An extensive new literature concerning low-dose effects of Bisphenol A shows the need for a new risk assessment. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113, 926–933. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Steinmetz, R.; Mitchner, N.A.; Grant, A.; Allen, D.L.; Bigsby, R.M.; Ben-Jonathan, N. The xenoestrogen Bisphenol A induces growth, differentiation, and c-fos gene expression in the female reproductive tract 1. Endocrinology 1998, 139, 2741–2747. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Colerangle, J.B.; Roy, D. Profound effects of the weak environmental estrogen-like chemical Bisphenol A on the growth of the mammary gland of noble rats. J. Steroid Biochem. Mol. Biol. 1997, 60, 153–160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Richter, C.A.; Birnbaum, L.S.; Farabollini, F.; Newbold, R.R.; Rubin, B.S.; Talsness, C.E.; Vandenbergh, J.G.; Walser-Kuntz, D.R.; vom Saal, F.S. In vivo effects of Bisphenol A in laboratory rodent studies. Reprod. Toxicol. 2007, 24, 199–224. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Akingbemi, B.T.; Sottas, C.M.; Koulova, A.I.; Klinefelter, G.R.; Hardy, M.P. Inhibition of testicular steroidogenesis by the xenoestrogen Bisphenol A is associated with reduced pituitary luteinizing hormone secretion and decreased steroidogenic enzyme gene expression in rat leydig cells. Endocrinology 2004, 145, 592–603. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Meeker, J.D.; Calafat, A.M.; Hauser, R. Urinary Bisphenol A concentrations in relation to serum thyroid and reproductive hormone levels in men from an infertility clinic. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 44, 1458–1463. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Mendiola, J.; Jørgensen, N.; Andersson, A.M.; Calafat, A.M.; Ye, X.; Redmon, J.B.; Drobnis, E.Z.; Wang, C.; Sparks, A.; Thurston, S.W.; Liu, F.; Swan, S.H. Are environmental levels of Bisphenol A associated with reproductive function in fertile men? Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 118, 1286–1291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Galloway, T.; Cipelli, R.; Guralnik, J.; Ferrucci, L.; Bandinelli, S.; Corsi, A.M.; Money, C.; McCormack, P.; Melzer, D. Daily Bisphenol A excretion and associations with sex hormone concentrations: Results from the inchianti adult population study. Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 118, 1603–1608. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Takeuchi, T.; Tsutsumi, O. Serum bisphenol a concentrations showed gender differences, possibly linked to androgen levels. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 2002, 291, 76–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hanaoka, T.; Kawamura, N.; Hara, K.; Tsugane, S. Urinary Bisphenol A and plasma hormone concentrations in male workers exposed to bisphenol a diglycidyl ether and mixed organic solvents. Occup. Environ. Med. 2002, 59, 625–628. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Vandenberg, L.N.; Maffini, M.V.; Sonnenschein, C.; Rubin, B.S.; Soto, A.M. Bisphenol-A and the great divide: A review of controversies in the field of endocrine disruption. Endocrine Rev. 2009, 30, 75–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Takeuchi, T.; Tsutsumi, O.; Ikezuki, Y.; Takai, Y.; Taketani, Y. Positive relationship between androgen and the endocrine disruptor, Bisphenol A, in normal women and women with ovarian dysfunction. Endocrine J. 2004, 51, 165–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lathi, R.B.; Liebert, C.A.; Brookfield, K.F.; Taylor, J.A.; vom Saal, F.S.; Fujimoto, V.Y.; Baker, V.L. Conjugated Bisphenol A in maternal serum in relation to miscarriage risk. Fert. Steril. 2014, 102, 123–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rochester, J.R. Bisphenol a and human health: A review of the literature. Reprod. Toxicol. 2013, 42, 132–155. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Li, D.-K.; Zhou, Z.; Miao, M.; He, Y.; Wang, J.; Ferber, J.; Herrinton, L.J.; Gao, E.; Yuan, W. Urine Bisphenol-A (BPA) level in relation to semen quality. Fert. Steril. 2011, 95, 625–630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Liu, X.; Miao, M.; Zhou, Z.; Gao, E.; Chen, J.; Wang, J.; Sun, F.; Yuan, W.; Li, D.-K. Exposure to Bisphenol-A and reproductive hormones among male adults. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2015, 39, 934–941. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Miao, M.; Zhou, X.; Li, Y.; Zhang, O.; Zhou, Z.; Li, T.; Yuan, W.; Li, R.; Li, D.K. Line-1 hypomethylation in spermatozoa is associated with Bisphenol A exposure. Andrology 2014, 2, 138–144. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Li, D.; Zhou, Z.; Qing, D.; He, Y.; Wu, T.; Miao, M.; Wang, J.; Weng, X.; Ferber, J.R.; Herrinton, L.J. Occupational exposure to Bisphenol-A (BPA) and the risk of self-reported male sexual dysfunction. Human Reprod. 2010, 25, 519–527. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Hornung, R.W.; Reed, L.D. Estimation of average concentration in the presence of nondetectable values. Appl. Occup. Environ. Hygiene 1990, 5, 46–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chaireti, R.; Gustafsson, K.; Byström, B.; Bremme, K.; Lindahl, T. Endogenous thrombin potential is higher during the luteal phase than during the follicular phase of a normal menstrual cycle. Human Reprod. 2013, 28, 1846–1852. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Watson, C.S.; Bulayeva, N.N.; Wozniak, A.L.; Alyea, R.A. Xenoestrogens are potent activators of nongenomic estrogenic responses. Steroids 2007, 72, 124–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Steinmetz, R.; Brown, N.G.; Allen, D.L.; Bigsby, R.M.; Ben-Jonathan, N. The environmental estrogen Bisphenol A stimulates prolactin release in vitro and in vivo. Endocrinology 1997, 138, 1780–1786. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Stoker, T.E.; Robinette, C.L.; Britt, B.H.; Laws, S.C.; Cooper, R.L. Prepubertal exposure to compounds that increase prolactin secretion in the male rat: Effects on the adult prostate. Biol. Reprod. 1999, 61, 1636–1643. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Goloubkova, T.; Ribeiro, M.F.M.; Rodrigues, L.P.; Cecconello, A.L.; Spritzer, P.M. Effects of xenoestrogen Bisphenol A on uterine and pituitary weight, serum prolactin levels and immunoreactive prolactin cells in ovariectomized wistar rats. Arch. Toxicol. 2000, 74, 92–98. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Aldad, T.S.; Rahmani, N.; Leranth, C.; Taylor, H.S. Bisphenol-A exposure alters endometrial progesterone receptor expression in the nonhuman primate. Fert. Steril. 2011, 96, 175–179. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Li, D.-K.; Miao, M.; Zhou, Z.; Wu, C.; Shi, H.; Liu, X.; Wang, S.; Yuan, W. Urine bisphenol-A level in relation to obesity and overweight in school-age children. PLoS ONE 2013, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cui, Y.; Yang, L.; Wu, Q. Investigation of dietary pattern of rural residents in Anhui and Xinjiang provinces. Chin. J. Public Health 2008, 24, 987–989. [Google Scholar]
- Völkel, W.; Colnot, T.; Csanády, G.A.; Filser, J.G.; Dekant, W. Metabolism and kinetics of Bisphenol A in humans at low doses following oral administration. Chem. Res. Toxicol. 2002, 15, 1281–1287. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Osuna, C.J.; Gomez-Perez, R.; Arata-Bellabarba, G.; Villaroel, V. Relationship between BMI, total testosterone, sex hormone-binding-globulin, leptin, insulin and insulin resistance in obese men. Syst. Biol.Reprod. Med. 2006, 52, 355–361. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Jensen, T.K.; Andersson, A.-M.; Jørgensen, N.; Andersen, A.-G.; Carlsen, E.; Skakkebæk, N.E. Body mass index in relation to semen quality and reproductive hormonesamong 1558 danish men. Fert. Steril. 2004, 82, 863–870. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Newbold, R.R.; Padilla-Banks, E.; Jefferson, W.N.; Heindel, J.J. Effects of endocrine disruptors on obesity. Int. J. Androl. 2008, 31, 201–208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
© 2015 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Miao, M.; Yuan, W.; Yang, F.; Liang, H.; Zhou, Z.; Li, R.; Gao, E.; Li, D.-K. Associations between Bisphenol A Exposure and Reproductive Hormones among Female Workers. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2015, 12, 13240-13250. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121013240
Miao M, Yuan W, Yang F, Liang H, Zhou Z, Li R, Gao E, Li D-K. Associations between Bisphenol A Exposure and Reproductive Hormones among Female Workers. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2015; 12(10):13240-13250. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121013240
Chicago/Turabian StyleMiao, Maohua, Wei Yuan, Fen Yang, Hong Liang, Zhijun Zhou, Runsheng Li, Ersheng Gao, and De-Kun Li. 2015. "Associations between Bisphenol A Exposure and Reproductive Hormones among Female Workers" International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12, no. 10: 13240-13250. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph121013240