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Fuels and Lubricants Notes
Fuels and Lubricants Notes
3 00 3
OBJECTIVE
To understand the source of automotive fuels and lubricants, their basic
properties, determination of air requirement for the combustion of fuels and basic
theory of lubrication.
UNIT I MANUFACTURE OF FUELS AND LUBRICANTS
9
Fuels, Structure of petroleum, refining process, thermal and catalytic cracking,products of
refining process, manufacture of lubricating oil base stocks and finished automotive
lubricants.
UNIT II FUELS FOR I.C. ENGINES
9
Types of Fuels, Liquid and gaseous fuels, heating value of fuels, higher and lower heating
values, chemical structure of hydro-carbons SI Engine fuels, Volatility characteristics,
desirable characteristics of SI Engine fuels, knock rating and additives, alternate fuels for
SI engines. CI engine fuels, desirable characteristics, cetane rating, alternate fuels for CI
engines, biodiesels.
UNIT III COMBUSTION OF FUELS
9
Stoichiometry - calculation of theoretically correct air required for combustion of liquid
and gaseous fuels, volumetric and gravimetric analysis of the dry products of combustion,
mass of dry gas per kg of fuel burnt, mass of carbon in the exhaust gas, mass of carbon
burnt to carbon-monoxide per kg of fuel, heat loss due to incomplete combustion, exhaust
gas analysis by Orsat apparatus.
UNIT IV THEORY OF LUBRICATION
9
Engine friction: introduction, total engine friction, effect of engine variables on friction,
hydrodynamic lubrication, elasto hydrodynamic lubrication, boundary lubrication,
Hydrostatic lubrication bearing lubrication, functions of the lubrication system.
UNIT V LUBRICANTS
9
Specific requirements for automotive lubricants, oxidation deterioration and
degradation of lubricants, additives and additive mechanism, synthetic lubricants,
classification of lubricating oils, properties of lubricating oils, tests on lubricants. Grease,
classification, properties, testing of grease.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS
1. V.Ganesan, Internal Combustion Engines Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Co.Newdelhi
2. M.L.Mathur and P.Sharma A course in internal combustion engines,
Dhanpatrai Publications
REFERENCES
1. Brame, J.S.S. and King, J.G. Fuels Solids, Liquids, Gaseous.
2. Francis, W Fuels and Fuel Technology, Vol. I & II
3. Hobson, G.D. & Pohl.W- Modern Petroleum Technology
4. A.R.Lansdown Lubrication A practical guide to lubricant selection
Pergamon press 1982.
5. Raymond.C.Gunther Lubrication Chilton Book Co., - 1971.
of General
Hydrocarbons
Paraffin
Olefin
Naphthene
Aromatic
Formula
CnH2n+2
CnH2n
CnH2n
CnH2n-6
Molecular
Saturated
Structure
Chain
Chain
Ring
Ring
Unsaturated
Saturated
Unsaturated
Saturated
Highly
Stable
Unstable
Stable
Most
Unsaturated
Unstable
/ Stability
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
iso-octance
(vi)
An early finishing process was clay treatment, whereby the oil was
mixed with fullers earth, which adsorbed reactive aromatic and unstable
molecules, and was then filtered off.
presented a wasted disposal problem and there were also large product
losses. Hydro finishing is now the normal process, whereby the reffinate is
passed through a heated reactor packed with a catalyst (typically nickel and
molybdenum oxides on silica and alumina)and hydrogen is passed in under
pressure (Figure 25.). Hydrogenation reactions reactions covert the unstable
compounds into stable ones. Aromatics, for example, are converted into
naphthenes. Hydrofinishing does not substantially reduce the product yield,
it increases the V.I., and removes some of the sulfur compounds (which are
converted to hydrogen sulfide) and other trace materials. The extent of these
effects is very dependent on the processing conditions catalysts, temperature,
pressure, etc.
AUTOMOTIVE LUBRICANTS:
Many types of lubricants are used in a vehicle. engine oil and
transmission fluid, on a volume basis, provide a major portion of the
lubricants in a typical car or truck, and a great number of standard tests are
associated with these fluids. Greases provide a variety of highly specialized
functions and are found in many locations within a vehicle (for example, in
door locks, gears for seat adjustments and windshield wipers, bearings,
electrical contacts, and numerous other places).
In general, automotive lubricants consist of a base stock and various
additives. The choice of base stock depends on the function of the lubricant.
In the case of engine oil, various types of organic oils may be used:
UNIT II
FUELS FOR I.C. ENGINES
TYPE OF FUELS
There are three types of fuels.
1. Liquid fuel 2. Gaseous fuel and 3. Solid fuel
General properties of fuels:
determine the rate of movement of the flame front across the combustion
chamber are the reaction rate and the transposition rate. The reaction rate is
the result of a purely chemical combination process in which the flame eats
its way into the unburned charge. The transposition rate is due to the
physical movement of the flame front relative to the cylinder wall and is also
the result of the pressure differential between the burning gases and the
unburnt gases in the combustion chamber.
Figure 12.3 shows the rate of flame propagation. In area I, (A-B), the flame
front progresses relatively slowly due to a low transposition rate and low
turbulence. The transposition of the flame front is very little since there is a
comparatively small mass of charge burned at the start. The low reaction
rate plays a dominant role resulting in a slow advance of the flame. Also,
since the spark plug is to be necessarily located in a quiescent layer of gas
that is close to the cylinder wall, the lack of turbulence reduces the reaction
rate and hence the flame speed. As the flame front leaves the quiescent zone
and proceeds into more turbulent areas (area II) where it consumes a greater
mass of mixture, it progresses more rapidly and at a constant rate (B-C) as
shown in Fig.12.3.
The volume of unburned charge is very much less towards the end of
flame travel and so the transposition rate again becomes negligible thereby
reducing the flame speed. The reaction rate is also reduced again since the
flame is entering a zone (area III) of relatively low turbulence (C-D) in Fig.,
12.3.
ABNORMAL COMBUSTION:
In normal combustion, the flame initiated by the spark travels across
the combustion chamber in a fairly uniform manner.
Under certain
operation conditions the combustion deviates from its normal course leading
to loss of performance and possible damage to the engine. This type of
combustion may be termed as an abnormal combustion or knocking
combustion. The consequences of this abnormal combustion process are the
loss of power, recurring resignation and mechanical damage to the engine.
THE PHENOMENON OF KNOCK IN SI ENGINES:
In a spark-ignition engine combustion which is initiated between the
spark plug electrodes spreads across the combustible mixture. A definite
flame front which separates the fresh mixture from the products of
combustion travels from the spark plug to the other end of the combustion
chamber. Heat-release due to combustion increases the temperature and
consequently the pressure, of the burned part of the mixture above those of
The
turbulence of the air in the combustion chamber passing across the jet tears
the fuel particles from the core. A mixture of air and fuel forms at some
location in the spray envelope and oxidation starts.
The liquid fuel dropiets evaporate by absorving the vaporization from
the surrounding air which reduces the temperature of a tine layer of air
surrounding the droplet and some time elapses before this temperature can
be raised again by absorbing heat from the bulk of air. As soon as this
vapour and air reach the level of the autoignition temperature and if the local
A/F ratio is within the combustible range, ignition takes place. Thus it is
obvious that at first there is a certain delay period before ignition takes
place.
Since the fuel droplets cannot be injected and distributed uniformly
throughout the combustion space, the fuel air mixture is essentially
heterogeneous. If the air within the cylinder were motionless under these
conditions, there will not be enough oxygen in the burning zone and burning
of the fuel would be eighter flow or totally fail as it would be s9urrgounded
by its own precuts of combustion.
movement must be imparted to the air and the fuel so that a continuous flow
of fresh air is brought to each burning droplet and the products of
combustion are swept away. This air motion is called the air swirl and its
effects.
STAGES OF COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINES
The combustion in a CI engine is considered to be taking place in four
stages. It is divided into the ignition delay period, the period of rapid
combustion, the period of controlled combustion and the period of after
burning. The details are explained below.
IGNITION DELAY PERIOD
The ignition delay period is also called the preparatory phase during
which some fuel has already been admitted but has not vet ignited. This
period is counted from the state of injection to the point where the pressure
time curve separates from the motoring curve indicated as start of
combustion.
PERIOD OF RAPID COMBUSTION
The period of rapid combustion also called the uncontrolled
combustion, is that phase in which the pressure rise is rapid. During the
delay period that droplets have had time to spread over a wide area and fresh
air is always available around the droplets. Most of the fuel admitted would
have evaporated and formed a combustible mixture with air.
PERIOD OF CONTROLLED COMBUSTION
The rapid combustion period is followed by the third stage, the
controlled combustion. The temperature and pressure in the second stage is
already quite high. Hence the fuel droplets injected during the second stage
burn faster with reduced ignition delay as soon as they find the necessary
oxygen and any further pressure rise is controlled by the injection rate.
PERIOD OF AFTER BURNING
Combustion does not cease with the completion of the injection
process. The unburnt and partially burnt fuel particles left in the combustion
chamber start burning as soon as they come into contract with the oxygen.
This process continues for a certain duration called the after burning period.
Usually this period starts from the point of maximum cycle temperature and
continues over a part of the expansion stroke. Rate of after burning depends
on the velocity of diffusion and turbulent mixing of unburnt and partially
burnt fuel with the air.
The
Compression ratio
ii)
Engine speed
iii)
Output
iv)
v)
Injection timing
vi)
vii)
Intake temperature
through the ignition delay period, additional droplets are being injected into
the chamber. If the ignition delay of the fuel being injected is short, the first
few droplets will commence the actual burning phase in a relatively short
time after injection and a relatively small amount of fuel will be
accumulated in the chamber when actual burning commences.
Effect of Variables on the Delay Period
Increases in variable
Effect on Delay
Reason
Period
Reduces
Reduces
Reduces
Compression ration
Reduces
Intake temperature
Jacket water temperature
Fuel temperature
Reduces
Reduces
Reduces
Intake
vaporization
Increases density
pressure Reduces
(Supercharging)
Speed
and
also
reduces
autoignition temperature
Increases in terms of Reduces loss of heat
crank angle. Reduce
in
terms
of
milliseconds
Decreases
Increase the operating temperature
Decrease in terms of Larger engines operator normally at low
crank angle.
Little speeds
effect in terms of
Type
chamber
of
milliseconds
combustion Lower for engines Due to compactness of the chamber.
with precombustion
SI Engines
High
CI Engines
Low
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Ignition delay
Compression ratio
Inlet temperature
Inlet pressure
Combustion wall temperature
Speed, rpm
Cylinder size
Long
Low
Low
Low
Low
High
Small
Short
High
High
High
High
Low
Large
ii)
v)
precombustion period.
TETRA METHYL LEAD :
The problem of maldistribution can be countered if boiling point of
lead carrier can be decreased. So instead of TEL these days, tetra methyl
lead (TML), (CH3)4 Pb is sometimes used. Since TML boils at 110C that is
within the medium fraction range, knock protection is provided, and
improvements have been noted up to 6 road octane number than those
obtained with TEL.
UNIT-IV
THEORY OF LUBRICATION:
INTRODUCTION:
Engine friction if defined as the difference between the indicated
horse-power (power at piston top as produced by the combustion gases) and
the brake horse-power (useful power) available at the output shaft, i.e.
f.p.=i.p.-b.p
TOTAL ENGINE FRICTION
Total engine friction, defined as the difference between ihp and bhp,
includes the power required to drive the compressor or a scavenging pump
and the power required drive engine auxiliaries such as oil pump, coolant
pump and fan, etc.
If the power to drive the compressor and auxiliaries is neglected, the
total engine friction can be divided into five main components. These are:
1. Crankcase mechanical friction.
2. Blowby losses (compression-expansion pumping loss).
3. Exhaust and inlet system throttling losses.
4. Combustion chamber pumping loop losses.
5. Pistion mechanical friction.
Crankcase Mechanical Friction. Crankase mechanical friction can further be
sub-divided into:
(1) Bering friction,
(2) Valve gear friction, and
(3) Pump and miscellanceous friction.
Blowby Losses:
Blowby is the phenomenon of leakage of combustion products past
the piston and piton rings from the cylinder to the crankcase.
Exhaust and Inlet Throttling Loss:
The standard practice for sizing the exhaust valve is to make them a
certain percentage smaller than the inlet valves.
Pistion Mechanical Friction:
Piston mechanical friction can be sub-divided into:
1. Viscous friction
2. Non-viscous friction
a) Friction due to ring tension
b) Friction due to gas pressure forces behind the ring.
EFFECT OF ENGINE VARIABLES ON ENGINE FRICTION
Effect of stroke/bore ration:
The effect of stroke/bore ration on engine friction and economy is
very small.
Effect of cylinder size and number of cylinders:
The friction and economy improves as a smaller number of larger
cylinders are used. This is because the proportion between the working
pistio area and its friction producing area, i.e. circumference, is reduced.
Effect of number of piston rings:
Fig.14.11 Shows the effect of pistion rings on total piston ring friction.
Comparing with Fig. 14.9 it can be said that the effect of number of pistion
ring is not very critical and this number is usually chosen on the basis of
cost, size and other requirements rather than on the basis of their effect on
friction.
Effect of compression ration:
As already discussed the friction mean effective pressure increases as
the compression ratio is increased. But the mechanical efficiency either
remains constant or improvers as the compression ratio is increased.
Effect of engine speed:
As already discussed engine friction increases rapidly as the speed
increases. The best way to improve mechanical efficiency as the speed
increases the number of cylinders.
Motering Method:
associated with firction occurs during boundary lubrication due to metal-tometal contact. A condition of boundary lubrication always exists when the
engine is first started. The shaft is in contact with the bottom of the bearing
with only a thin surface film of oil formed on them. The bearing surfaces
are not perfectly smooth-they have hills and valleys which tear this thin
film which is constantly formed while the crankshaft is turning slowly. As
the speed increases it switches on to hydrodynamic lubrication. Boundary
lubrication may also occur when the engine is under very high loads or when
the oil supply to the bearing is insufficient.
Bearing Lubrication:
Show the action of the lubricant in a bearing. When the shaft is not
rotating, there is metal-to-metal contact the shaft and bearing due to
squeezing out of oil from under the journal because of shaft weight. As the
shaft starts to rotate, due to high starting friction, the journal momentarily
rolls slightly up the side wall. If some surface oil remains on the bearing the
shaft will slide back to the bearing bottom when it hits the oil.
This
climbing and sliding back continues till sufficient oil is supplied by the
pump so that the climbing shaft grabs the oil instead of the bearing wall and
a curved wedge-shaped oil film is formed. This film now supports the shaft
in the bearing. The only friction encountered is the small fluid friction
caused by the rapid shear of the oil particles as they slip over one anther.
This
phenomenon
of
shift
from
boundary
lubrication
to
lift the shaft and metal-to metal contact ensues. This is the zone of boundary
lubrication. Reduction in viscosity or speed of increae in load (P), all move
the operating point to left. The operation in this zone is unstable because
under boundary lubrication the coefficient of friction is high which results in
more heat generation. This further decreases the viscosity of the oil which,
in turn leads to higher value of coefficient of friction through lower values of
ZN / P. This ultimately leads to seizure of metallic surfaces.
Viscosity:
Viscosity of an oil is measure of its reistance to flow and is usually
measured in terms of Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS) which is the time
required, in seconds, for a given quantity of the oil to flow through a
capillary tube under specified test conditions. Viscosity is usually expressed
a two temperatures-18oC (0oF) and 99oC (210oF).
Viscosity Index:
The viscosity of an oil is substantially affected by its temperature,
higher the temperature lower is the viscosity. This variation of viscosity of
an oil with changes in temperature is measured by its Viscosity Index (V.I.)
The oil is compared with two reference oils having same viscosity at 99oC
(210oF).
Cloud Point and Pour Point:
at the time of the test it is called closed flash point, and if open it is called
open flash point. Fire point is the temperature at which the oil, if once lit
with flame, will burn steadily at least for 5 seconds. This is usually 11oC
higher than open flash point and varies from 190oC to 290oC for the
lubricants used for the internal combustion engines.
Carbon Residue:
molecular action and then to provide a very thin layer of lubricant under
boundary lubrication conditions is called the oiliness or lubricity or film
strength.
Colour:
UNIT V
LUBRICANTS
Introduction:
Lubrication circuit is one of the most important ones in the engine.
The engine cannot run smoothly for more than a few minutes without the
lubricating oil.
Requirements of Lubricants
1. Viscosity
In simple language, the viscosity may be considered as the
resistance of the lubricating oil to flow.
2. Physical Stability
The lubricating oil must be stable physically at the lowest and the
highest temperatures encountered in practice.
3. Chemical Stability
At higher temperatures the oil should remain chemically stable. There
should not be any tendency for oxide formation; many of the oxidation
products being sticky substances clog the lines and cause faulty piston ring
and valve action
4. Resistance Against Corrosion
The oil should not have any tendency to corrode the pipe lines, crank
case and other engine parts with which it comes into contact.
5. Pour Point
The minimum temperature at which the oil will pour is called its pour
point.
6. Flash Point
The flash point of the oil should be sufficiently high so as to avoid flashing
of oil vapors at the temperatures occurring in common use.
7. Cleanliness
The oil should be sufficiently clean
TYPES OF LUBRICANTS
1. Animal Oils
2. Vegetable Oils
3. Mineral Oils
4. Synthetic Lubricants
The examples of synthetic lubricants are silicon fluids, polyglycol ethers and
aliphatic diester oil. In general, they have superior property than the mineral
oil but the high cost limits their use.
5. Greases
They are suspension of metallic soaps dispersed in lubricating oil. Greases
find use in automobile at places where retention of liquid lubricants is
difficult and the high temperature is encountered.
TESTING OF LUBRICANTS
Physical tests
1. Viscosity test
2. Flash point and fire point test
3. Loss due to evaporation
4. Cold or pour point test
5. Specific gravity test
Chemical Tests
1. Acid value test
2. Sponification value test
3. Insoluble residue test
4. Moisture and emulsification test
Viscosity Tests
1. Redwood viscometer
2. Saybolt viscometer
3. Engler viscometer
OIL ADDITIVES
1. Oxidation Inhibitors
These inhibit formation of varnish by preventing the oxidation of the oil at
the engine operating condition
2. Corrosion Inhibitors
These prevents are at least reduce the formation of acids which would
cause baring corrosion .These consists of oxidation inhibitors with the
addition of metal salt of thiophosphoric acid and sulphurized waves.
3. Detergents
These are also called dispersant additives. This inhibits the formation of low
temperature sludge binders and breaks the sludge particles into finely
divided particles, which stay in the oil in fine suspension and are removed
when the engine oil changed.
4. Viscosity Index Improvers
These are the additive which do not allow or at least minimize the decrease
of oil viscosity with the increase in temperature.
5. Anti foaming additives
Anti foaming additives are available which suppress the foaming tendency
of the oil. Polyorganosiloxanes are the most common anti foaming additives
6. Extreme pressure Additives
These cater for more difficult condition of lubrication .e.g. the one arising
between the highly stressed cams and valve tappets. These prevents metal to
8. Others
Apart from above a large variety of additives are available some of these
are rust inhibitors, water repellents, emulsifiers, dyes, odour controllers.
EFFECTS OF ENGINE CONDITIONS OF LUBRICATING OIL
1. Sludge Formation
2. Lacquer formation
3. Oil dilution
4. Carbon deposition
CONSUMPTION OF LUBRICATING OIL
1. Combustion
2. Loss through Leakage
3. Loss through crankcase ventilation
4. Loss on account of wear of engine parts
GREASES
Greases are prepared by saponification of fat followed by adding hot
lubricating oil under agitation .The total amount of mineral oil added
determine
the
consistency
of
the
finished greases.
Greases have higher shear or frictional resistance than oil and, therefore can
support much heavier loads at lower speeds. They also do not require as
much attention unlike the lubricating liquids. But greases have tendency to
separate into oil and soap.
1.Calcium based greases are emulsion of petroleum oil with calcium soap,
they are generally ,prepared by adding requisite amount of calcium
hydroxide to a hot oil, like allow while under agitation .These greases are
cheapest and most commonly used .They are insoluble in water, so water
resistant. However they are satisfactory for use at low temperature, because
above 80 degree Celsius, oil and soap begins to separate out.
2. Soda based greases are petroleum oil, thickened by mixing sodium soap,
they are not water resistant, because the sodium soap content is soluble in
water .However they can be used up to 175 degree celcius.They are suitable
for use in ball bearing, where the lubricants gets heated due to friction.
3. Lithium based greases are petroleum oils are thickened by mixing lithium
soap. They are water resistant and suitable for use at lower temperature (up
to 15 degree Celsius) only.
4. Axle greases are very cheap resin greases prepared by lime to resin and
fatty oil. The mixture is thoroughly mixed and allowed to stand, when grease
floats are stiff mass. Fillers like talc and mica are also added to them. They
are water resistant and suitable for less delicate equipments working under
high loads and at low speeds.