Pike 2007 What Kind of Local and Regional Development and For Whom
Pike 2007 What Kind of Local and Regional Development and For Whom
To cite this article: Andy Pike , Andrés Rodríguez-Pose & John Tomaney (2007) What Kind
of Local and Regional Development and for Whom?, Regional Studies, 41:9, 1253-1269, DOI:
10.1080/00343400701543355
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Regional Studies, Vol. 41.9, pp. 1253 –1269, December 2007
PIKE A., RODRÍGUEZ -POSE A. and TOMANEY J. (2007) What kind of local and regional development and for whom?, Regional
Studies 41, 1253–1269. This paper asks the question, what kind of local and regional development and for whom? It examines
what is meant by local and regional development, its historical context, its geographies in space, territory, place and scale and
its different varieties, principles and values. The socially uneven and geographically differentiated distribution of who and
where benefits and loses from particular forms of local and regional development is analysed. A holistic, progressive and sustainable
version of local and regional development is outlined with reflections upon its limits and political renewal. Locally and regionally
determined development models should not be developed independently of more foundational principles and values such as
democracy, equity, internationalism and justice. Specific local and regional articulations are normative questions and subject to
social determination and political choices in particular national and international contexts.
PIKE A., RODRÍGUEZ -POSE A. et TOMANEY J. (2007) Quelle sorte d’aménagement du territoire et pour qui?, Regional Studies 41,
1253–1269. Cet article pose la question suivante: quelle sorte d’aménagement du territoire et pour qui? Il cherche à examiner ce
que l’on veut dire par aménagement du territoire, son historique, ses orientations quant à l’espace, au territoire, à l’endroit et à
l’échelle, et ses différentes formes, principes et valeurs. On examine la distribution socialement irrégulière et géographiquement
distincte des gens et des emplacements qui profitent ou perdent des formes particulières d’aménagement du territoire. On esquisse
ici une version de l’aménagement du territoire à la fois holistique, progressive et durable, tout en réfléchissant sur ses limites et sur le
regain politique. Des modèles de développement, déterminés sur les plans local ou régional, ne devraient pas être développés indé-
pendamment des principes et des valeurs de base, tels la démocratie, l’équité, l’internationalisme et la justice. Des articulations
locales et régionales spécifiques sont des questions normatives et dépendent de la détermination sociale et des choix politiques
dans des contextes nationaux et internationaux particuliers.
PIKE A., RODRÍGUEZ -POSE A. und TOMANEY J. (2007) Welche Art von lokaler und regionaler Entwicklung und für wen?
Regional Studies 41, 1253 –1269. In diesem Beitrag wird die Frage gestellt: welche Art von lokaler und regionaler Entwicklung
und für wen? Untersucht werden der Begriff der lokalen und regionalen Entwicklung sowie ihr historischer Kontext, ihre
Geografien in Raum, Gebiet, Ort und Maßstab sowie ihre verschiedenen Varietäten, Prinzipien und Werte. Analysiert wird
die gesellschaftlich ungleichmäßige und geografisch differenzierte Verteilung hinsichtlich der Frage, wer von bestimmten
Formen der lokalen und regionalen Entwicklung wo profitiert oder verliert. Es wird eine ganzheitliche, progressive und nachhal-
tige Version der lokalen und regionalen Entwicklung beschrieben, und es werden Überlegungen hinsichtlich ihrer Grenzen und
politischen Erneuerung angestellt. Lokal und regional bestimmte Entwicklungsmodelle sollten nicht unabhängig von grundlegen-
deren Prinzipien und Werten wie Demokratie, Gleichheit, Internationalismus und Gerechtigkeit entwickelt werden. Spezifische
lokale und regionale Äußerungen sind normative Fragen und unterliegen einer gesellschaftlichen Determination sowie einer poli-
tischen Auswahl in bestimmten nationalen und internationalen Kontexten.
PIKE A., RODRÍGUEZ -POSE A. y TOMANEY J. (2007) ¿Qué tipo de desarrollo regional y local es necesario y para quién?, Regional
Studies 41, 1253–1269. En este ensayo planteamos la cuestión de qué tipo de desarrollo regional y local es necesario y para quién.
Analizamos qué significa exactamente desarrollo local y regional, su contexto histórico, sus geografı́as en el espacio, territorio, lugar y
broadened definitions of local and regional development and between places over time. However, critique of the
(HAUGHTON and COUNSELL , 2004; KEATING, 2005). linear stages model of ‘development as modernization’
Often uncertain moves toward notions of quality of toward ‘developed’, industrialized and ‘advanced’
life, social cohesion and wellbeing are being integrated country standards of living and norms suggests that the
or balanced, sometimes uneasily, with continued con- increased diversity of approaches and pathways of ‘devel-
cerns about economic competitiveness and growth. opment’ are not necessarily proceeding towards the same
Broader understandings provide new opportunities singular destination (RANGAN, 2007). Third, the histori-
to think about and define local and regional develop- cally dominant focus upon economic development has
ment. What local and regional development is – in broadened, albeit highly unevenly, to include social,
the present. What it can or could be – in terms of ecological, political and cultural concerns. Last, the
future visions. And, normatively, what it should be – national and, increasingly, supra-national ‘development’
in the sense of people in places making value-based focus has evolved multi-scale understandings to incor-
judgements about priorities and what they consider to porate differing meanings of the local and the regional.
be appropriate ‘development’ for their localities and Advanced, ‘developed’ industrial countries, economies
regions. No singularly agreed, homogeneous under- undergoing transition from central planning, and
standing of development of or for localities and countries formerly considered as ‘developing’ have
regions exists. Particular notions of ‘development’ are been reincorporated into a much more global develop-
socially determined by particular groups and/or inter- ment question than hitherto:
ests in specific places and time periods. What constitutes
as globalization and international economic integration
‘local and regional development’ varies both within and
have moved forward, older conceptions of the broad struc-
between countries and its differing articulations change ture of world economic geography as comprising separate
over time (BEER et al., 2003; DANSON et al., 2000; blocs (First, Second and Third Worlds), each with its own
REESE , 1997). Incremental and, sometimes, radical developmental dynamic, appear to be giving way to
shifts occur, shaped by practice, experience, assessment another vision. This alternative perspective seeks to
and reflection. Debate and deliberation can transform build a common theoretical language about the develop-
conceptions and practices of local and regional develop- ment of regions and countries in all parts of the world,
ment. Models can be imposed and contested. Inno- as well as about the broad architecture of the emerging
vation can incorporate formerly alternative approaches world system of production and exchange . . . it recognizes
into the mainstream. Changing government agendas that territories are arrayed at different points along a vast
during political cycles can recast local and regional spectrum of developmental characteristics.
(SCOTT and STORPER , 2003, p. 582)
development policy. However, as argued below, local,
regional and national interests determine local and As its boundaries shift beyond the national, where local
regional development in specific and particular con- and regional development unfolds has become a central
texts, albeit in relation to broader economic and politi- question.
cal processes.
Given this potential for geographical differentiation
and change over time, considering the evolution of
Where is local and regional development?
definitions and conceptions of local and regional devel-
opment can anchor its main themes and dimensions in However defined, development is a profoundly
their historical context (PIKE et al., 2006; also COWEN geographical phenomenon and does not unfold in a
1256
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1257
1258 Andy Pike et al.
spatial vacuum devoid of geographical attachments or remain integral to the reproduction and exercise of
context. The inevitably social process of local and political power:
regional development is necessarily spatial (CASTELLS,
1983) and requires an appreciation of the geographical The global media and markets that shape our lives beckon
us to a world beyond boundaries and belonging. But the
concepts of space, territory, place and scale. Space is
civic resources we need to master these forces, or at least
an integral constituent of economic, social, ecological, to contend with them, are still to be found in the places
political and cultural relations and processes, and their and stories, memories and meaning, incidents and identi-
geographies condition and shape in profound ways ties, that situate us in the world and give our lives their
how such processes develop (HARVEY, 1982; MARKU- moral particularity.
SEN, 1987). As specific spatial scales, the ‘local’ and (SANDEL , 1996, p. 349)
the ‘regional’ are particular socially constructed spatial
scales not simply containers in which such processes Territorial boundaries form defined areas, evolving and
are played out (HUDSON, 2007; SWYNGEDOUW, changing over time (PAASI , 1991), within which
1997). Spaces are causal and explanatory factors in particular definitions and kinds of local and regional
economic growth not just receptacles for, or manifes- development are articulated, determined and pursued.
tations of, its outcomes (SCOTT and STORPER , 2003). While the current phase of accelerated international
At a time when the spatially ‘unbounded’ and economic integration means that localities and regions
relational character of localities and regions continues face ostensibly similar development questions, this
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to be debated (ALLEN and COCHRANE , 2007; ALLEN does not situate local and regional development on a
et al., 1998; MAC LEOD and JONES, 2007; LAGENDIJK , homogeneous or uniform geographical plane. ‘Devel-
2007; MASSEY, 2004), it is important not to lose sight opment’ is concerned with specific and particular
of the territorially embedded nature of their develop- places. From Hackney to Honolulu to Hong Kong,
ment and agency. While flows of ideas, people and each place has evolving histories, legacies, institutions
resources remain integral to territorial development and other distinctive characteristics that impart path
processes (HIRSCHMAN, 1958), the expression of dependencies and shape – inter alia – its economic
localities and regions in which different kinds of devel- assets and trajectories, social outlooks, environmental
opment may or may not be taking place in specific time concerns, politics and culture (AGNEW, 2002;
periods is often as territorially bounded units with par- MARTIN and SUNLEY, 2006). Such particularities can
ticular administrative, political, social and cultural forms be both shared and different and can be materially and
and identities, albeit those boundaries are continually symbolically important to defining local and regional
being reworked and constructed anew at different development. The geographical diversity of places con-
spatial scales. Within such territories, states and other ditions how and why definitions of local and regional
quasi- or non-state institutions – associations of development are to a degree contingent and vary both
capital, labour and civil society – engage to differing within and between countries and over time (SEN,
degrees and in different ways in local and regional devel- 1999). Local and regional development definitions are
opment and its government and governance. Even in an inevitably context-dependent (STORPER , 1997):
era of more globally integrated economies and more Economic development is not an objective per se. It is a
complex, multi-layered institutional architectures, means for achieving well being, according to the culture
locally and regional rooted understandings and agency and the conditions of certain populations. Nevertheless
Global Trading regime liberalization International Labour Organisation (ILO), International Monetary Fund
(IMF), World Trade Organization (WTO), inter-governmental
organizations, nation states
Macro-regional Information and communication technol- European Union, Member States, regulatory bodies, private sector
ogy network expansion providers
National House price inflation Central Banks, building societies, borrowers
Sub-national Transport infrastructure expansion Public transport bodies, private companies, financial institutions
Regional University graduate labour retention Universities, Regional Development Agencies, employers, training
providers
Sub-regional Labour market contraction Employment services, trade unions, business associations, employers,
employees
Local Local currency experimentation Local Exchange Trading Systems, households
Neighbourhood Social exclusion Local authorities, regeneration partnerships, voluntary groups
Community Adult literacy extension Education and training institutions, households, families
of investments, and the growth potential, sectoral mix sidered ‘appropriate’, ‘bad’, ‘good’, ‘failed’ or ‘successful’
and social diversity of new firms. Qualitative approaches forms of local and regional development are shaped by
focus upon subjective concerns informed by specific principles and values socially and politically determined
principles and values of local and regional development in different places and time periods.
socially determined in context within particular
localities and regions at specific times. Depending
Principles and values
upon the context, the sustainability of growth may be
evaluated in terms of its ecological impact; the Principles and values shape how specific social groups
‘quality’ of jobs might be assessed by their employment and interests in particular places define, understand,
terms and conditions, relative wage levels, career pro- interpret and articulate what is defined and meant by
gression opportunities, and trade union recognition local and regional development. The worth, desirability
and the extent to which each form of ‘development’ and appropriateness of different varieties of local and
contributes to the enhancement of citizens’ capabilities regional development may be collectively held unani-
(SEN, 1999). Although efforts have been made recently mously, shared with a degree of consensus or subject
to quantify such factors, the approach still remains fun- to contest and differing interpretations by different
damentally qualitative. Research has tended to concen- interests within and between places over time. Rather
trate, however, on the ‘success’ stories of high- than narrowly and simply rational and technocratic cal-
productivity and/or high-cohesion forms of growth, culations, principles and values of local and regional
neglecting other less desirable, but widespread, types development frame value judgements and raise norma-
of growth (SUNLEY, 2000). tive questions about values, ethics and opinions of what
Quantitative and qualitative dimensions of local and should be rather than what is (MARKUSEN, 2006).
regional development can be integrated but are not What could and should local and regional development
necessarily complementary. Localities and regions can mean? What sorts of local and regional development
experience ‘development’ in quantitative terms but does a locality or region need and want? What kinds
with a problematic qualitative dimension, for example of development are deemed appropriate and inap-
inflationary and short-lived growth, increased low propriate? What constitutes the ‘success’ or ‘failure’ of
‘quality’ jobs, disembedded inward investors and/or specific kinds of development for a locality or region?
failing start-up firms. Similarly, localities and regions How should these normative questions be addressed?
can witness qualitative ‘development’ that is quantitat- Principles and values of local and regional develop-
ively problematic, for example low level, weak (but ment reflect the relations and balances of power
perhaps more sustainable) growth, insufficient (although between state, market, civil society and are socially and
potentially good quality) jobs, too few new investments politically determined within localities and regions. Prin-
and new firms. ciples might reflect foundational (HARVEY, 1996) or uni-
In grappling with the dimensions of growth, ‘high’ versal beliefs held independently of a country’s levels of
and ‘low’ roads to local and regional development development such as democracy, equity, fairness, liberty
have been identified to describe causal relationships and solidarity (SEN, 1999). Individuals and institutions
between high or low levels of productivity, skills, with social power and influence can seek to impose
value-added and wages in relation to the relative levels their specific interests and visions of local and regional
of sophistication of economic activities (COOKE , development but these may be contested (HARVEY,
1995). The ‘high’ road equates with quantitatively 2000). It is, then, critical to ask whose principles and
What Kind of Local and Regional Development and for Whom? 1261
values are being pursued in local and regional develop- advantaged by particular varieties of local and regional
ment. Particular varieties of the political settlements of development. The objects and subjects of local and
government and governance of local and regional devel- regional development work across sometimes overlap-
opment are central to how such questions are framed, ping levels and scales (Table 4). This distinction
deliberated and resolved (HALL and SOSKICE , 2001; can help reveal policy implications – intended or other-
also COOKE and CLIFTON, 2005). Such social agency is wise – and the geographical impacts of spatial and non-
not wholly autonomous or independent to act and spatial policies (PIKE et al., 2006).
decide its own course of development, however. It is cir- The social welfare distribution of who and where
cumscribed by the structural, institutional and historical benefits and loses from particular varieties of local and
context in which it is embedded and the constraints this regional development is geographically differentiated
creates in any consideration of what ‘development’ is, and changes over time. The distribution of social
could or should be about. The social and political deter- power and resources within society shapes the econ-
mination of the principles and values of local and regional omic, social and political inequalities and experiences
development is a geographically uneven process and prin- of local and regional development (HARVEY, 1996).
ciples and values can differ between places and change The relationship between economic efficiency and
over time. Particular geographically rooted constructions growth and social equity is a recurrent normative
of ‘development’ condition the social use of resources issue (BLUESTONE and HARRISON, 2000; SCOTT and
with potentially different economic, social, ecological, STORPER , 2003). The greater focus on local and
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political and cultural implications, for example whether regional development accompanied by an emphasis on
places seek to address internal social needs or external efficiency at the sub-national level has often been at
markets (WILLIAMS, 1983). Such heterogeneity and con- the expense of the redistributive capacities of nation
tingency underpins the range and diversity of different states (CHESHIRE and GORDON, 1998). Still, though,
approaches to local and regional development. Elsewhere, too little is known about the extent to which social
however, localities and regions may seek convergence cohesion is a result or cause of economic growth
toward more mainstream and orthodox approaches, for (PERRONS, 2004).
example liberalizing their economies, promoting compe- KUZNETS ’ (1960) nationally focused work argued
tition and reducing the role of the state. The principles that further economic growth tended to generate
and values that shape social aspirations may reflect per- inequality at low income levels. RICHARDSON (1979)
ceived economic, social and political problems and injus- saw regional inequalities as a problem in the early
tices, for example concerning the allocation of public stages of a nation’s growth that could be ameliorated
expenditure, the actions of local or trans-national firms, by redistributive regional policies, while HIRSCHMAN
ecological damage or the relative degree of political
autonomy. ‘Development’ in this specific context may
then be defined as a ‘fairer’ allocation of public funding Table 4. The objects and subjects of local and regional
(MC KAY and WILLIAMS, 2005), greater regulatory development
control over the power of firms (CHRISTOPHERSON
Level/scale Objects Subjects
and CLARK , 2007), upgraded environmental standards
and enhanced political powers. People Individuals Education and training
Households Homecare services
Families Childcare
Neighbourhoods Neighbourhood renewal
LOCAL AND REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT Spaces, places Communities Community
FOR WHOM? and territories regeneration
Villages Rural diversification
Definitions and kinds of local and regional development Localities Strategic partnerships
are closely related to the question of local and regional Towns Market town revival
development for whom? Answers to this question Cities Growth strategies
concern the objects and subjects of local and regional City-regions Local authority
development and the social welfare dimensions of the collaboration
Sub-regions Spatial strategies
uneven and geographically differentiated distribution
Regions Regional economic
of who and where benefits and loses from particular var- strategies
ieties of local and regional development. The objects of Sub-nations Economic development
local and regional development are the material things strategies
to which ‘development’ action is directed. The subjects Nations Regional development
are the themes upon which ‘development’ is based. Macro-regions Economic and social
Each provides a means of discerning the implications cohesion
International Aid distribution
of specific forms of local and regional development
Global Trade liberalization
and policies. Social welfare analysis reveals how specific
social groups and/or institutional interests may be Source: Adapted from PIKE et al. (2006, p. 49)
1262 Andy Pike et al.
(1958) indicated that greater initial inequality may rep-
resent the natural path towards equality. For Kuznets, as
income levels per capita increased, a critical threshold of
income is reached and further economic growth and
higher average per capita income tended to reduce a
nation’s overall income inequality (Fig. 1). The ‘knife-
edge’ dilemma between growth and equity remains
central to current debates:
some analysts hold that development policy is best focused
on productivity improvements in dynamic agglomera-
tions, (thereby maximising national growth rates but
increasing social tensions), while other analysts suggest
that limiting inequality through appropriate forms of
income distribution (social and/or inter-regional) can
lead to more viable long-run development programmes.
(SCOTT and STORPER , 2003, p. 588)
products of relativist definitions of ‘development’ deter- programmatic and systemic forms of local and regional
mined by particular places in specific time periods. Such policy:
introspective and narrow understandings may only fuel
inter-territorial competition and zero-sum interpret- environmentally sustainable development implies a more
ations of development. Instead, the specific local and important role for the public sector, because sustainability
requires a long-term – intergenerational – and holistic
regional forms, articulation and determination of prin-
perspective, taking into account the full benefits and
ciples and values are normative issues subject to varying costs to society and the environment, not only the possi-
degrees of local and regional social determination, bility of private profitability.
shaping and struggle within their particular national (GEDDES and NEWMAN, 1999, p. 22)
and international contexts (STANDING, 1999). They
are normative questions for localities and regions of Depending upon the circumstances and aspirations of
what their local and regional development should be particular localities and regions and often very real con-
about. KEATING et al. (2003) argue that political and straints (MAINWARING et al., 2006), balances and com-
social agents instrumentalize and utilize territorial iden- promises inevitably emerge from considerations of
tities to provide socially rooted frameworks for such sustainable development when connected to holistic
politics. Formalized institutions of state and civil and progressive principles.
society adapt and mould such interests. Based upon Critics may see a utopian and infeasible wish list in
their specific interpretations of concepts and theories, this particular normative approach. But the principles
localities and regions attempt to find and reach their and values of holistic, progressive and sustainable local
own particular ‘syntheses’ of distinctive models of and regional development are being explored and put
local and regional development conditioned by cultural into practice by international, national, regional and
values, institutions and prevailing modes of social and local interests (PIKE et al., 2006). The International
political mobilization. Drawing upon the ‘post- Labour Organisation’s local development framework
development’ critique (GIBSON -GRAHAM , 2003), this focuses upon human development and ‘decent work’
view rejects any notion of ‘one-size-fits-all’ models (CANZANELLI , 2001). Further international examples –
and underpins the growing variety and diversity of amongst many others under development and
local and regional development approaches. Yet, while experimentation (BEER et al., 2003; SCOTT, 1998) –
reflecting particular and specific local and regional include alternative economic strategies based
aspirations, needs and traits, such locally and regionally upon local currencies (LEYSHON et al., 2003),
determined models or resolutions should not be devel- sustaining local and regional economies (HINES, 2000;
oped independently of the more universal values out- MITCHELL , 2000; PIKE et al., 2005), labour-oriented
lined above. Such local and regional resolutions are investment funds (LINCOLN, 2000), international fair
shaped by the balance, dialogue, power and relations trade and local development (AUDET, 2004), localizing
of local and regional interests, sensitive to their specific food provision through public procurement
contexts, and mediated through multi-layered insti- (MORGAN, 2004; RICKETTS HEIN et al., 2006),
tutions of government and governance (MORGAN, gender-sensitive approaches (AUFHAUSER et al.,
2007; RODRÍGUEZ -POSE and STORPER , 2006). 2003), public sector dispersal (MARSHALL et al., 2005;
The third guiding principle is sustainability. MYUNG -JIN, 2007), mobilizing community engage-
Sustainable local and regional development is holistic ment to formalize undeclared work (WILLIAMS, 2005)
in encouraging broader notions of inclusion, health, and ecological modernization by encouraging local
What Kind of Local and Regional Development and for Whom? 1265
development through ‘de-manufacturing’ and recycling and practices suggest a particular normative view of
(GIBBS et al., 2005). While not exhaustive, these what local and regional development should be about.
examples provide concrete cases of at least some Yet, there are limits to what local and regional devel-
elements of the present approach. opment can achieve. Broadened understandings of local
Holistic, progressive and sustainable local and and regional development are necessary but not suffi-
regional development is not a ‘one-size-fits-all’ template cient for more evenly distributed territorial develop-
or universal model. Neither is it a plea for local and ment, wealth and wellbeing across and between
regional relativism and voluntarism in definitions of localities and regions. The macroeconomics of growth
development driven solely by local and regional inter- and the extent and nature of the engagement of national
ests in splendid isolation. Instead, this approach outlines states within the international political economy raise
guiding principles informed by the kinds of universal fundamental questions concerning the problems and
values discussed above that may influence the social prospects for local and regional development:
determination of definitions, geographies, varieties,
how, in a prospective global mosaic of regional economies,
principles and values for local and regional development
individual regions can maximise their competitive advan-
that are geographically differentiated and change over tages through intra-regional policy efforts while simul-
time. A holistic, progressive and sustainable approach taneously working together collaboratively to create an
is but one answer to the fundamental question of effective world-wide inter-regional division of labour
what kind of local and regional development and for
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